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AN INTRODUCTION TO 

AGRICULTURE 



AN INTRODUCTION 



TO 



AGRICULTURE 



BY 

A. A. yPHAM 

TEACHER OF SCIENCE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
WHITEWATER, WISCONSIN 

AND 

G. A. ^CHMIDT, M. S. 

TEACHER OF AGRICULTURE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
WHITEWATER, WISCONSIN 



NEW EDITION THOROUGHLY REVISED. 
NEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS. 




• " «i 



D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

NEW YORK CHICAGO 



S4q5 



COPYRIGHT, 1910, 1919, BY 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 



PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



PREFACE 

The progress that has been made in the teaching of 
agriculture and the emphasis given to the subject 
through the pressure of the world war have made a re- 
vision of the ^' Introduction to Agriculture '' desirable. 
When this book Avas published eight years ago, few of the 
states of the Union had published courses of instruction 
in agriculture. Most of the states have now done so and 
the authors have compared these courses and selected the 
salient points as a basis for an elementary book. Any 
state will find this book a text 'admirably fitted to its 
required course of study in agriculture. 

The high cost of living has turned the attention of 
many people towards the raising of poultry and garden 
products ; the book will be found especially strong in 
these two particulars and will therefore serve as a val- 
uable reference book in public libraries and in homes 
of amateur farmers. Throughout the volume special 
emphasis has been given to those phases of agriculture 
in which a child is most easily interested and in which he 
can most readily become useful. The new chapter on 
home projects directs him in such work. 

The book contains many questions and problems, 
mostly new, and of a kind that the practical student 



VI 



PEEFACE 



ought to be able to answer. These questions and prob- 
lems are not directly answered in the text but require the 
student to think, investigate, or act. 

Grateful acknowledgment is made for cuts furnished 
us by the United States Department of Agriculture, by 
colleges of agriculture and by business concerns inter- 
ested in agriculture. Credit has in all cases been given 
unless by accident it has been overlooked. If any such 
omissions have occurred the authors will be glad to make 
the necessary correction in subsequent editions if their 
attention is called to the omission. 

A. A. Upham. 

G. A. Schmidt. 



CONTENTS 

^HAPTER PAGE 

•*' I Importance of the Study of Agriculture . 1 

II The Nature of Plants 6 

III The Soil 14 

IV Water in the Soil 27 

V Tillage 39 

VI Elements of Plant Food in the Soil . . 47 

VII Soil Fertility 56 

VIII Leguminous Crops and Rotation of Crops . 70 

IX Corn 79 

X Wheat, Barley, Rye, and Oats , „ . . 96 

XI Forage Crops 108 

XII Other Farm Crops 116 

XIII Seeds 128 

XIV Plant Enemies 136 

XV The Farmer's Friends: Birds, Toads, Bees 151 

XVI Garden Crops 161 

XVII Home Gardens 168 

XVIII Propagation by Cuttings and by Other 

Means 182 

XIX The Orchard 189 

XX Spraying and Spraying Solutions .... 203 

XXI Feeding Animals 214 

XXII Poultry 231 

XXIII Cattle 248 



CONTE^^TS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXIV Milk and Its Products 270 

XXV Horses . 280 

XXVI Swine and Sheep 289 

XXVII Good Roads — Forestry — Home and School 

Grounds . . . . , 310 

XXVni School-Home Projects . 323 

XXIX School Gardens . . . « 336 

Appendix ........... 349 



AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTEK I 

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE 

I. Why Agriculture Should be Studied. — Agri- 
culture touches the life of all of us. The three great 
needs of a human being are food, shelter and clothing. 
With the exception of sea foods and salt most of our 
food is produced by the farmer. Nearly all our cloth- 
ing is made from cotton, wool, silk and leather which 
are the products of agriculture. Our houses are 
largely built of wood which grows on the land and even 
now in some parts of the world requires attention like 
other crops. While many of the pupils who study, 
agriculture in school never become farmers, an increas- 
ing number are finding that they have need of what 
agriculture teaches. Every one should know some- 
thing about the production and the qualities of the 
different foods he eats. In rural schools, especially, 
pupils need to learn both the reasons for the work 
which is done on the farm, and the ways in which suc- 
cessful farmers do it. 

Schools to-day are trying everywhere to give pupils 

knowledge which will be of practical use to them in 

life; and, from this point of view, no study is more 

1 



2 AN I^TTRODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 

important than agriculture. No pupil conies to under- 
stand the subject by crowding his mind with facts or 
by memorizing his text book. He must observe the 
things he is studying about, wherever he finds them — 
in the fields or on the home farm. These facts of agri- 
culture are always about him, and are full of interest- 
ing matter for thought and for careful study, so that 
the subject of agriculture offers any pupil plenty of 
opportunity for the mental discipline which his grow- 
ing mind needs, even while at the same time, it gives 
him knowledge he can put to practical use. 

2. Relation Between Success of Farmers and 
Their Education. — On reading the preceding topic, 
the thought may arise, " The more education a man has, 
the poorer farmer he will be." If education means, as 
it formerly did, a knowledge of the classics, ancient 
history, and the higher mathematics, the thought may 
very likely be true. But the word education, in this 
connection, means gaining the knowledge and the judg- 
ment regarding the underlying principles by which the 
farmer works, in order to get successful results. Any 
sensible boy readily can see that knowing the princi- 
ples of raising and feeding dairy cattle, and practice 
and skill in the use of the Babcock test, will lead to 
more success in dairying; that a knowledge of plant 
growth will lead to a more productive orchard ; or that 
knowing how to improve plants and make the soil 
more fertile, will lead to the production of bigger and 
better crops. More than that, any boy or girl who has 
studied agriculture should be able to conduct a home 
garden project, or any other farm project, and get 



IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY 3 

better results than he would if lie had not studied agri- 
culture. 

3. Increased Production Due to Better Knowl- 
edge. — There are on record many cases, where a per- 
son, having more carefully applied the underlying prin- 
ciples of agTiculture, has obtained unusually good re- 
sults in the very places where before, when these princi- 
ples have been ignored, the results have been complete 
failures. One of the most striking of these occurred 
on " Poorland Earm," in southern Illinois. In 1903 
Prof. Cyril Gr. Hopkins bought this farm of 300 acres 
for less than $20 an acre. On a 36 acre-field of this 
farm, which was so poor that it had been abandoned, 
he raised, in 1913, 1278 bushels of wheat, or 35^2 
bushels to an acre. He got this result in a very prac- 
tical and economical way; he spent $1.75 per acre each 
year for the materials with which he improved the 
field. 

Here is another case — one which shows what in- 
telligence did for an Iowa farmer. In three years, by 
keeping dairy records, by weeding out poor cows, and 
by proper feeding and management, this farmer in- 
creased the average yearly yield of butter fat of his 
herd from 207.7 lbs. to 341.98 lbs. This made the 
products of each cow worth $75 more a year to him 
than the cost of keeping her, while, at the beginning 
of the three vears, each cow had been worth onlv 
$22.12 more than the cost of her keep. Thus, by put- 
ting to practical use his knowledge of dairying, this 
farmer increased the average net income of each of his 
cows 39 per cent. 



4 a:n' inteoduction; to ageicultuke 

Eighteen Ohio farmers kept records of their flocks 
of hens for one year. The best flock of 100 hens showed 
a profit of $247* over the cost of feed, and the poorest 
flock showed a profit of only $15. Here again better 
knowledge of the underlying principles of poultry 
management made a difference in net income of $222 
in favor of the best flock. 

4. Growth of Agricultural Instruction. — The last 
fifteen years has seen a remarkable development in the 
teaching of agriculture. This development has been 
due largely to the activity in agricultural interest 
aroused by the United States Department of Agriculture 
and by the State Colleges of Agriculture. Under their 
guidance, agriculture, the oldest industry of man, and 
the most necessary for sustaining life, has reached a 
stage where its importance is appreciated by every 
thoughtful man. JN^o intelligent citizen to-day is en- 
tirely ignorant of the science of agriculture. 

As a result of this aroused interest, there has de- 
veloped a mass of good writing on agricultural sub- 
jects. Hundreds of books on all phases of agriculture, 
written by trained specialists, are found in public 
libraries. The circulation of agricultural periodicals 
is wide-spread throughout the country ; and the Govern- 
ment, State Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta- 
tions, as well as railroads, and private business organiza- 
tions, are constantly putting forth the results of their in- 
vestigations in the form of bulletins. Xo student in the 
public schools of America to-day can afford to overlook 
or slight a subject of such universal importance as 
agriculture. 



IMPOETANCE OF THE STUDY 5 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Give at least three reasons why agriculture should be 

taught. 

2. Give some instances where a better knowledge of fann- 
ing has given better results. 

3. What 'should a man know who wishes to buy good po- 
tatoes? Good corn? Celery? Meat? Butter? 

4. What do you know about the growth of the agricultural 
instruction in the high schools of your county? In your 
state agricultural college? 

5. What are some of the things your state college of agri- 
culture has done which have benefited the farmers in your 
community ? 

6. What agricultural bulletins and periodicals does your 
father receive? In what articles in them are you most inter- 
ested ? 

7. Do the grade cows in your community give better milk 
and butter fat yields than the scrub cows ? 



CHAPTEE II 



THE NATURE OF PLANTS 



5. Importance of Plants. — Plants are very impor- 
tant, for without them animals could not live. Animals 

depend upon plants for 
their food. A cow eats 
grass and changes this into 
milk and meat. We eat 
both plant and animal 
matter hut the animal mat- 
ter we eat, such as meat, 
eggs, milk, etc., comes 
from animals that have 
made these substances 
from plants. Later we 
shall learn how all green 
plants can make, from the 
materials thev absorb from 
the soil and air, the sub- 
stances we commonlv call 
foodstuffs, such as protein, 
sugar, starch, and fat. 
'No animal can make these 

foodstuffs but all green 
plants can. 

6. The Parts of a Plant. — Most plants have roots, 
stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. 

6 




TYPifiAL PLANT {Columbine) 

Showing, a, flower; h , leaf; 
c, stem; d, roots 




THE XATURE OF PLANTS 7 

Roots. — The roots reach out through the soil, hold 
the plant iu place, and absorb raw food material for it. 
They conduct the absorbed liquids up to the stem of the 
plant. In plants which live more than one year, the 
roots also act as a storage house for reserve food ma- 
terials. Large roots 
branch into smaller 
roots, until they be- 
come fine, delicate 
rootlets. The tiny 
rootlets bear the still 
finer root hairs. 
These root hairs are 
so very fine and deli- 
cate that they appear cross section of a root 

Qc Q rlpn«P» wliitp fnyy Showing the Root Hairs, a, bark cells: 
as a aense Wnire lUZZ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ passage of water and air 

on young seedlings. 

Wlien corn, oats, or other seeds are tested for their 
germination power the root hairs may be seen easily. 
The root hairs are very important, as it is they which 
absorb from the soil the substances which the plant uses 
in making food. 

Stems. — The stem is the framework on which leaves, 
flowers and fruits are borne. It may be very short and 
thick as the " crown " of the turnip or beet ; it may be 
very slender and light as in grains, or it may be large 
and strong as in the trunk of a tree. By means of 
numerous tubes the stems also connect the leaves with 
the roots. The water and other raw food materials 
absorbed by the root hairs must be taken up into the 
leaves where these raw food materials are manufactured 



8 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 



into plant food. Some of this manufactured plant food 
must then be carried back from the leaves down to the 
stem and roots, so that these parts may be nourished and 
grow. Roots and stems, or any other parts of a plant, 
cannot be nourished by the raw food materials absorbed 
from the soil, until these materials are made into manu- 
factured plant food in the leaves. 

Leaves. — The leaves of plants are generally broad, 
thin and green. The leaves are the factories in which 
the raw food materials, gathered by the roots and by the 
leaves themselves, are made into plant food for the use 
of the entire plant. The large part of the leaf is the 
blade. Running through the center of the blade is the 
thickened midrib, and branching out from the midrib 

are the veins. 
The midrib and 
veins have vessels 
which are in di- 
rect communica- 
tion with the ves- 
vels of the stem. 

Flowers. — In 
order to ffet a clear 
idea of the parts 
of a flower, sepa- 
rate into its parts 
a simple flower 
like a morning 
glory or a single 
petunia. You will notice first a sort of a cup where 
the flower rises from its stem. This is the calyx. It 




FLOWER OF PEONY. SHOWING THE FOUR SETS 

OF FLORATi ORGANS 

k, the sepals, together called the calyx; c, 
the petals, together called the corolla ; a, the 
numerous stamens ; g, the two carpels, which 
contain the ovules. — Strashurger. 



THE NATUKE OF PLANTS 9 

is generally green and often divided into parts, like 
little leaves. Inside this green calyx cup is the corolla^ 
the colored or showy part of the flower which attracts 
our attention. The divisions of the corolla are called 
petals. In the heart of the flower you will find a 
cluster of slender threads, called stamens, each with an 
enlargement containing a fine powder, called pollen. 
In the very center of the flower, surrounded by the 
stamens, is the pistil or seed forming organ. This is 
usually largest at the base, just above the point where 
it connects with the stem, and it is in this enlarged 
part that the seeds form and develop. 

7. Pollination and Fertilization. — In order that 
a seed mav be formed in the seed or2:an of a flower, it 
is necessary that pollen shall fall or be placed on the 
upper part of the pistil. This transfer of pollen from 
the upper part of the stamen to the upper part of the 
pistil is called pollination. Sometimes the wind does 
this work for the flower, and sometimes an insect. 
When the upper part of the pistil is ready to receive the 
pollen, it is usually stick}^ so that the pollen will cling 
to it. The pollen grain soon begins to germinate and 
sends a shoot down into the enlarged part of the pistil, 
or ovary, where it reaches the forming seed. The con- 
tents of the pollen grain mingle w^ith the contents of the 
forming seed and make a fertilized seed. The process 
is called fertilization. If a forming seed has been fer- 
tilized it will grow and develop into a seed ; if not, it and 
all the parts of the flower will wither and die. Miss- 
ing kernels of corn are a common example of forming 
^' seeds which have never been fertilized. 



10 AN INTEODUCTIO:^ TO AGRICULTUKE 

8. Fruits and Seeds. — When a flower has been fer- 
tilized^ the ovary, and in some cases, adjacent parts, 
continue to grow and develop into the fruit. When a 
flower is not fertilized, no fruit is formed. A mature 
or ripened ovary, together with its contents, always is 
the fruit of a seed forming plant. Sometimes, as in the 
case of corn or oats, the seed constitutes the entire fruit ; 
and often, as in the apple, the seed is but a very small 
part of the fruit. 

Seeds. — The fruit continues to grow until the seeds 
are ripe. At first the seeds contain much water and 
they must be drv before thev can be stored away safely. 
This is why corn and grains are shocked in the field at 
harvest time, and seed corn is gathered and hung where 
it will dry quickly and not freeze while it contains so 
much water. After seeds are dry, freezing does not 
injure them. There are many different kinds of seeds, 
but all of them contain both a little immature plant, 
called the germ, and some stored up food. In a bean 
seed the little plant is easily seen. 

Soak some lima beans and some kernels of corn in water 
for a few days. Then remove the seed coat of the bean and 
notice the little root projecting up between the halves of the 
seed and the little leaves between them. Cut the kernels of 
corn lenglihwise through the center and notice the little 
stem and root. 

Classes of Seeds. — There are two common classes 
of seeds. The bean is a good example of one class and 
corn of the other. If you try to divide the bean seed, 
you will see how easily it separates into two halves. 
Each of these halves is a thickened seed leaf and is 



THE :N'ATURE of plants 11 

called a cotyledon. Projecting out between the cotyle- 
dons is a small pointed root-like structure and between 
them is a pair of little leaves. These parts are all at- 
tached to each other and form the new plant when the 
seed germinates. The corn seed differs from the bean 
in that it has only one cotyledon, in which the little root 
and leaves are imbedded. 

g. How a Plant Grows. — You have seen how a 
plant begins to grow from the seed. It sends a shoot 
upward toward the light and a root downward into the 
soil. The upward shoot becomes the stem and leaves, 
and the downward shoot, the root. The root, as it 
grows, soon divides into many branches which penetrate 
the soil in all directions. 

Place some large seeds, as beans, peas and corn, in water. 
Put some in damp sand and sawdust. Watch their develop- 
ment and continue to study the little plants as they grow.. 

ID. How the Plant Gets Its Food. — The plant 
starts its life by feeding on the manufactured food 
stored in the seed. But as soon as its leaves have 
reached the sunlight and the roots have developed root 
hairs, the plant absorbs the raw materials out of which 
it makes its own food. Air, water, and mineral salts 
in the soil water are the plant's raw food materials. 

The green tissues of a plant have the power to com- 
bine the water and the mineral substances from the soil, 
and the gases from the air, to make food for the plant. 
This process can take place only in the sunlight and 
the leaves are the principal organs manufacturing this 
food. In the process the leaves return to the air, 



12 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGRICULTUKE 



through their breathing pores^ both a gas which we call 

oxygen, and water, in the form of vapor. 

II. Conditions of Growth. — In order to grow well, 

the plant must have the 
proper conditions of 
heat, water, air, light, 
and raw food. Until 
the weather is warm 
most seeds do not even 
sprout. Light is very 
essential to the life of 
plants ; in the dark they 
stop growing or grow 
only a little and weakly. 
A certain amount of 
water must be in the 
soil within reach of the 
plant, or it will wither 
and die. There must 

be free circulation of air, and the proper amount and 

kinds of raw food materials must be in the soil. 

In two wide-mouthed bottles place some damp sand or saw- 
dust. After soaking a handful of oats in water over night, 
place half of the seeds in each bottle. Cork one bottle very 
tightly, and leave the other open. Watch the results. How 
can you account for the difference? 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Give a list of flowers pollinated by insects. By the 
wind. 

2. Would it be better to bunch the corn in a garden or 
plant it in a single row? Explain. 





ROOT TIPS OF CORN 

Showing root-hairs and their position in 
reference to the growing tip 



THE NATUEE OF PLANTS la 

3. Make a list of plants having one cotyledon. Having 

two. 

4. The seeds of what plants are used for the manufacture 
of oil? Of starch? 

5. Draw a longitudinal section of some flower and label 

all parts. 

6. Why cannot the plant use stones for food materials? 

7. In what form is the raw plant food usually found in 
the soil? Is this good or bad? 

8. In transplanting plants why should they not be pulled 
out of the ground ? 

9. Name the plants whose seeds are especially rich in pro- 
tein. 



CHAPTEE III 



THE SOIL 



'^ The soil is the greatest natural resource of the Na- 



tion. 



?? 



12. The Composition of Soils. — By soil we mean 
that part of the earth's crust in which plants grow. It 
is a loose, decomposed layer of mineral matter mixed 
with more or less vegetable and animal matter. The 
soil furnishes plants with water and raw food materials, 
and gives them an ideal place in which to spread their 
roots so that they may easily support the parts which 
live above the ground. The soil varies greatly in depth. 

In some places it may 
.a be onlv a few inches 

^^^^S^^^M' deep, and in others, 

many feet. The top 
laver of the soil is 
often called the top or 
surface soil, and it is 
generally darker in 
color than the layer 
beneath it, called the 
subsoil. The subsoil 
gi'eatly 





SOIL FORMED FROM ROCK UNDERNEATH 

a, soil with grass growing in it; h, sub- 
soil, coarser and more rocky ; c, coarse, loose 
rock; d, rock in layers, cracked, d changes 
to c, c changes to b, and b to a. 



vanes 



m 



depth and extends 

down to the underlying layer of bed rock. The top soil 

14 



THE SOIL 15 

is darker than the subsoil because it contains more 
vegetable matter. The subsoil is generally harder, 
colder, and less suitable for plant growth than the top 

soil. 

13. Origin of Soil Materials. — All the mineral 
particles in soils have been formed from the breaking 
down or crumbling, and decomposition of rocks. These 
processes never cease in the soil and are continuously 
leaving rock particles of various sizes. In many soils 
there is a gradual grading from fine particles on top, 
down through coarser and coarser materials until the 
solid rock is reached. The different agents which 
nature uses to bring about the breaking down and the 
decomposition of rocks are : — water, frost, changes of 
temperature, wind, plants, animals, gravity, acids, and 
the gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide. 

Refer to your geographies and find out how each of these 
agents accomplishes this work. 

14. Source of Organic Matter. — Plants on the 
surface of the ground, and also their roots, wither and 
die, and some of the materials they contain slowly be- 
come a part of the soil. The original richness of the 
pioneer soils of the western prairies was due to the 
benefits of the vegetable matter which the roots and 
tops of the prairie grasses had been forming for many 
years. 

The animal matter in the soil comes from the re- 
mains of animals which have died. The amount of 
this is always very small. The dead animal and vege- 
table matter, accumulating both in the soil and on the 



16 AN IXTEODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

surface decays and gives the dark color to our soils. 
We call this decaying animal and vegetable matter 
humus. Quite often the term organic matter is used 
in speaking of soils. This term refers to all the animal 
and vegetable matter. It includes not only all the 
humus in soils but also the plant and animal matter not 
sufficiently decayed to be called humus. 

15. Formation of Soils. — The soil on which your 
schoolhouse is built has been formed in one of two 
ways. The soil particles may have been brought to 
the place by some agent such as a glacier, running 
water, the wind, gravity, or by volcanic action ; or else 
the particles were formed by the breaking down of the 
solid rock which once covered that particular spot. 

Refer to your geographies and read again just how these 
agents have formed, or transported and deposited soils. 

16. Classes of Soils. — Most soils are made up 
chiefly of four different kinds of materials — sand, silt, 
clay, and humus. Sand, silt, and clay are the mineral 
parts of the soil ; the coarsest of these is sand, the finest 
is clay, while silt is finer than sand but coarser than 
clay. 

Sandy Soils. — When you rub sandy soils between 
your fingers, you find that they feel gritty. They drain 
and dry out quickly because the pore spaces between 
the particles of sand are large. Air circulates freely 
in them and they warm up quickly. Sandy soils are 
adapted to early crops. 

Clay Soils. — Clay when dry and loose is like a very 
fine powder. Clay soils are just the opposite of sandy 



THE SOIL 



17 



soils. The pore spaces between the particles are ex- 
ceedingly small ; in fact, so small that the tiny particles 
of clay can easily unite themselves into a sticky mass. 
Clay soils drain and dry slowly and admit little air. 
When they dry after rains, they are compact and often 
form on the surface a hard crust which makes it diffi- 
cult for the air to circulate in them. Clay soils are 
spoken of as cold soils. They are best adapted to the 
small grains and grasses. 

Loayn Soils. — When sand, silt, and clay are found 
in a soil so evenly mixed that there is not much more 
of one kind of soil than of another, we call the soil a 
loam. Loam soils are aenerallv considered the best, be- 
cause they may be used to grow to advantage all of 
our common crops. 
They have none of 
the disadvantages of 
sandv and clav soils, 
and still thev have 
most of their good 
qualities. There are 
many kinds of loam 
soils, such as : silt 
loam, sandy loam, 

clay loam, etc. ; in these the silt loam contains slightly 
more silt, the sandy loam, slightly more sand, than is 
found in a loam soil. 

Marsh Soils. — There are also soils which contain so 
large a part of organic matter that they are very black 
in color. Once upon a time these have been marshes, 
but they are now drained, and have become what is 




SOIL WITHOUT HUMUS 

Notice how hard and compact this soil 
appears. — Courtesy of the International 
Harvester Company. 



18 A^ II^TKODUCTIOI^ TO AGKICULTUKE 




SOIL RICH IN HUMUS 

Note the diflference between this soil and 
the hard, baked soil. — Courtesy of the In- 
ternational Harvester Company. 



known as muck and peat soils. Peat soils contain more 
organic matter than muck soils, and both kinds, when 

properly drained, 
generally make good 
soils. 

Light mid Heavy 
Soils. — If we had 
equal volumes of 
sand, silt, and clay, 
all in a loose and dry 
condition, and should 
weigh them, we 
would see that the 
sand would weigh the most, and that the clay would 
weigh the least. Usually, however, you will hear a 
sandy soil spoken of as light and a clay soil as heavy. 
These terms do not refer to the actual weights of soils, 
but to the ease with which they are worked. Sandy 
soils are easier to plow and to cultivate than clay soils, 
as the " pull " required is less. 

17. Other Constituents of Soils. — Besides mineral 
and organic matter, soils also contain water, air, and 
many kinds of living organisms, such as worms, insects, 
molds and bacteria. 

Earthtvorms. — Earthworms are verv beneficial to 
soils, because the channels or burrows they make allow 
water and air to penetrate more rapidly. Earthworms 
help drain the soil and by means of their channels give 
roots an easy chance to penetrate into the harder 
subsoil. \ 

Soil Bacteria. — Good soils literallv teem with bac- 



THE SOIL 19 

teria. There are both good and bad bacteria in the 
soil. Some of the good bacteria act upon the organic 
matter and change it in such a way that much of the 
insoluble matter which composes it, is made soluble. 
This process sometimes is called decay. From this 
decay, nitrogen, one of the necessary raw foods of 
plants, is set free in such a way that the plant can use 
it for raw food. 

Other soil bacteria live upon the roots of leguminous 
plants, as on the bean, clover, alfalfa, etc. These also 
are good bacteria, because they make use of the nitro- 
gen in the soil air and change it into a nitrate, a soluble 
compound which the plant, upon whose roots the bac- 
teria lives, uses for a raw food material. 

Soil also contains bad bacteria. These bad bacteria 
are most numerous and active in wet soils. The bad 
bacteria do not aid in making raw plant food ready for 
the use of plants. 

Air in the Soil. — Roots of plants, germinating seeds, 
worms, insects, and bacteria, all need air to live. Air 
in the soil is necessary also because the gases it con- 
tains, oxygen and carbon dioxide, help in the decom- 
position of substances in the soil. 

Humus in Soils. — Humus is one of the most impor- 
tant constituents of all our soils, and without humus 
no soil is of much value. A soil containing little or no 
humus is generally barren. Humus adds to the soil 
raw plant food, principally nitrogen. Humus not only 
feeds the bacteria in the soil, but it is their principal 
source of food. 

1 8. Humus Forming Materials. — Manure forms 



20 AN INTRODUCTIOj^ TO AGEICULTURE 

a great deal of humus, and this fact makes manure of 
more vahie to the farmer than commercial fertilizers 
in the improvement of most poor soils. Sod, stubble, 
and roots of crops, weeds, corn stalks, straw, and in 
fact, all vegetation, add humus to the soil. This shows 
us why manure should never be allowed to lie in piles in 
a barnyard for a long period of time until it has de- 
composed and lost much of its value as a fertilizer, and 
wliv straw stacks and corn stalks should never be 
burned, but be made use of by farmers to improve their 
land. Another excellent way to add much humus form- 
ing material to a soil is by growing a crop which is 
adapted to being plowed under; such crops planted for 
such a purpose are called green manure crops. 

ig. Soil Acidity. — When we mentioned the differ- 
ent agents by which soil is 
made, we spoke of acids. 
Vinegar and lemon juice are 
good examples of acids. The 
greater part of many acids is 
water, and this is also true of 
vinegar and lemon juice. If 
we put a little piece of old 
plaster in a glass and cover it 
with vinegar or lemon juice 
we shall see little bubbles 
passing up through the liquid 
and if we put the glass close 



F 



SOILS 

FORMATION 



TYPES 



'1 



H£AT 




GLACIER 




WAVE:; 



EROSION 



SWAMP 



CLAY 



LOAM 



Courtesy of the Soil Improve- 
ment Committee of the National 
Fertilizer Association. 



to our ear we shall hear a sizzling noise. 
Try this experiment. 



THE SOIL 21 

If we put a drop of vinegar or lemon juice on a 
piece of blue litmus paper we shall see the blue paper 
turn red. 

Any druggist will give you a few strips of litmus paper 
with which you can try this experiment. 

All substances which act toward old plaster and lit- 
mus paper as the vinegar and lemon juice do are called 
acids. The small roots of plants contain an acid, some 
of which is always entering the soil. 

Prove this by crushing a little root against a piece of blue 
litmus paper. 

The decay of organic matter and the decomposition 
of certain mineral soil particles also add acids to the 
soil. The gas carbon dioxide which occurs in the air 
makes a mild acid when it unites with water and some 
of this acid enters the soil. If there are anv substances 
in the soil which have the same properties which the 
piece of plaster has, these soil acids act upon them just 
as the vinegar or lemon juice acts upon the plaster in 
the glass. If there is enough of these materials pres- 
ent in the soil, the acids will soon be destroyed. Lime- 
stone and other forms of lime have the same proper- 
ties which the plaster has and this is why these ma- 
terials are often put upon an acid soil to destroy its 
aciditv or to sweeten it. 

20. Testing Soils. — It is a simple matter to test 
soils for aciditv. Take a handful of wet soil and form 
it into a ball. Break the mud ball into halves, and 
place a piece of blue litmus in the center on one of the 
halves, and cover with the other half. After five 



22 AN I^^TEODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

minutes break the ball, and if the paper now appears 
pink, the soil is sour. If you need water to moisten 
the soil, use soft water which has no effect upon the 




IN MOST CASES LIME SHOULD RE APPLIED TO THE LAND AFTEE IT IS 

PLOWED AND PARTLY FITTED. — The Country Gentleman published by the 
Curtis Company, Philadelphia. 

litmus paper. Handle the soil as little as possible as 
the hands generally contain an acid which changes the 
color of the paper. 

Test soils with litmus paper. 

We also can tell easily if a soil itself contains lime 
by adding vinegar or hydrochloric acid to it as we did 
to the plaster in the glass. 



THE SOIL 23 

Try this experiment. Bubbling and sizzling indicate the 
presence of some form of lime. 

We can safely say that the majority of our farming 
soils contain too much acid and too little lime for the 
greatest crop yields. In every state the liming of soils 
is a regular farm practice. 

21. Disadvantage of Acid Soils. — The acid in the 
soil checks the growth of our good bacteria which make 
nitrates from the humus and from the soil air ; in many 
places the actions of bacteria almost stop because of the 
large amounts of acid in the soil. The lack of lime 
also has an effect upon the physical structure of the soil 
so that it is apt to be more compact than if lime were 
present. 

22. Appearance of Acid Soils. — Acid soils often 
bear certain outward signs which show that they are 
acid, such as the failure of clover, alfalfa, and other 
legumes to grow well; often these crops will not make 
any growth at all on acid soils. The appearance of 
sheep sorrel, moss, and horsetails is also an indication 
that the soil is acid. Liming the soil destroys the acids, 
and when this is done, we say the soil has been sweet- 
ened, because the soil acids have a sour taste just as 
vinegar and lemon juice have. 

To each of two tumblers, three-fourths full of water, add 
and stir a tablespoonful of soil. Add enough lime water to 
one tumbler to fill it. Note how the settling and clearing 
of the two tumblers differs. Adding lime to a soil granulates 
it as the lime did in this case. 

23. Soil Surveys. — The United States Government 
in connection with the State Agricultural Colleges, is 



24 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

making soil surveys in all the states. A soil survey is a 
verv careful studv of the soil, made in the field and 
usually considers the following : — 

Origin and formation of the soil. 

The lay of the land. 

Whether originally timbered or prairie. 

Structure and depth of soil. 

The physical and chemical composition. 

The kind of soil — class and type. 

The drainage. 

The value, based on productiveness. 

The reaction. 

Suggestions for improvement. 

In brief, a soil survey is an inventory of a soil and is 
intended to be of practical help to farmers so that they 
may, without any cost, be able to study how to make 
the best possible use of their soils. Each soil survey 
usually covers a county ; that is, the county is the unit. 
A map showing the topography, and by means of dif- 
ferent colors, the soil types, accompanies each bulletin 
containing a survey. These surveys may be obtained 
from the State Agricultural Colleges or from the United 
States Department of Agriculture at Washington. Not 
all counties in the United States have been surveyed, 
but the plan is to make a survey of every county which 
has much agricultural land and which is fairly well 
populated. 

Each school should inquire from its State Agricultural 
College whether its county has been surveyed, and, if it has, 
obtain the soil survey bulletin and map. There is no better 



THE SOIL 25 

way to get as large an amount of valuable information about 
the soil of any particular county as by studying its survey. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. How deep is the surface soil in your garden ? 

2. What do you suppose was the origin of the surface soil 
you removed to get its depth? 

3. Is the soil in your garden a clay, sandy, or loam soil?' 
How do you know? 

4. Have you ever seen any muck soils in your vicinity? 
Describe their location. 

5. What do you suppose is the cause of the bogs so often 
seen on muck land ? 

6. Would a rock crumble more where the climate is evea 
or where it is changeable? 

V. What are your reasons for believing that the surface 
soil is better than the subsoil ? 

8. If 96% of a sample of limestone may be dissolved and 
carried away by water how many cubic feet of such limestone 
would make 12 cubic feet of soil? 

9. Do the farmers in your community make a regular 
practice of liming the soil ? 

10. Has a soil survey been made of your county? 

Bulletins for Sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Soil Surveys 15 cents each. Send for list of your state^ 

Also issued by the State Agricultural Colleges. 
Soils of the United States, Soils Bulletin 55, 45 cents.. 
Study of Soils of the United States, Soils Bulletin 85, 25 

cents.. 
Soil Erosion, Soils Bulletin 71, 35 cents. 
Some Organic Soil Constituents, Soils Bulletin 88, 10 cents. 
Important American Soils. Yearbook Sept. 563, 5 cents. 



26 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Limiiig Soils, F. B., 257. 

Renovation of Worn-Out Soils, F. B., 245. 

Management of Muck Soils in Ind. and Mich., F. B., 761. 

Management of Sandy Farms in Ind. and Mich., F. B., 716. 

A Simple Way to Increase Crop Yields, F. B., 924. 

The Principles of Lining Soils, F. B., 921. 



CHAPTER IV 

WATER IX THE SOIL 

24. The Importance of Water to Plants. — With- 
out plenty of water in the soil, plants cannot thrive. 
You already know whv this is so. Water itself is a 
raw food material, and in the water is also dissolved 
all the other raw food materials which a plant takes 
from the soil. More than that, water is necessary to 
conduct the raw food materials from the roots to the 
leaves and to conduct some of the manufactured food 
from the leaves back to the stem and roots. 

25. The Movement of Water in the Soil. — Part 
of the water that fails during a rain sinks into the soil 
in the little pore spaces between the soil particles. You 
know how the water sometimes runs through the soil 
in a flower pot and comes out of the hole at the bottom. 
If the soil is dry, and you give the plant only a little 
water, none of the water runs out, but all of it is held 
among the soil particles, which now look moist instead 
of dry. That water which sticks to the particles of soil 
is called fllni or capillary water, because it surrounds 
the particles and also partly fills the small pore spaces, 
or capillaries, between them. The water which runs 
through the soil is called free water because it is free to 
drain. The water that comes into a hole which is being 

dug in the ground, is free water. 

27 



28 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 



Evaporation. — If we add considerable water to a 
flower pot, the free water will run out through the hole 
in the bottom. The soil on the top soon begins to dry 
out. The water in this top soil passes off into the air 
in the form of vapor. We call this process evaporation 
and we say the water evaporates. 

How Water Rises in the Soil.- — When the water from 
the upper surface evaporates, the film of water sur- 
rounding these upper particles gets thinner. The film 

of water is thickest 
nearest the bottom 
and this is whv the 
bottom soil is always 
more moist than the 
surface soil. Slowly 
the water from the 
lower surface begins 
to creep up around 
the soil particles, just 
as the oil creeps up a lamp wick, or as ink moves up a 
piece of blotting paper. Each particle, however, will 
continue to be covered with a film of water and when this 
reaches its thinnest stage, upward movement ceases. 
When roots take water from the soil, the films of water 
in contact with the roots get thinner, and this causes a 
movement of water toward the roots, just as in the case 
of evaporation, there occurred a movement toward the 
upper soil particles. We call the force which brings 
about this movement of water capillary attraction. 

Take two glasses, fill one with water, and place them side 
by side. Place one end of a lamp wick in the glass contain- 




EXPERIMENT SHOWING CAPILLARITY 



WATEK m THE SOIL 



29 



ing the water, as shown in sketch, and let the other end hang 
into the empty glass. Watch the results. 

Increasing Upward Movement of ^Yater. — It is pos- 
sible to increase the upward movement of the water in 
soils and to draw np water from the subsoil by keeping 
the soil particles fine and close together. Xaturally, 
then, in a well prepared seed bed there would be more 




APPARATUS TO TEST THE POWER OF SOILS TO TAKE UP MOISTURE FROM 

BELOW. — Farmers' Bulletin No. 408, United States Department of Agri- 
culture. 

water near the surface than in a seed bed which is not 
well prepared, but cloddy and loose. The upward 
movement of water may also be illustrated with lamp 
chimneys, as shown in the sketch. 

To the bottom of three lamp chimneys securely tie a piece 
of cheese cloth. Fill one chimney with gravel, one with 
sifted sand, and one with any fine soil. Set the bottom of 
each chimney in a glass of water and watch for the results. 

You probably have noticed that in a garden which has 
just been spaded and raked, the soil under your foot- 
steps looks more moist than that in other places. If a 



30 A^ lA^TEODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTUEE 



soil is well prepared, and slightly compact, the water 
rises readily and much will be lost by evaporation unless 
the process of evaporation is checked. 

26. Checking Evaporation. — The evaporation can 
be checked by loosening the particles of soil near the 
surface. This loosening breaks up the tubes, sepa- 
rates the particles, and prevents the film water of the 
lower particles from pressing too tightly together, or 
from coming into too close contact with one another. 
In this way, the movement of evaporation is greatly 
checked, and this explains why cultivation checks evapo- 
ration and helps to keep moisture in the soil. 

27. Amount of Water Used by Plants. — The 

amount of water which 



m ^ t^ m mf .m w Hmm — — - - ■ — - . ms^ i mmmim^ ~ " ' m 

MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS 1 
•-POUND OF REQUIRES Of WATER 



plants contain, even when 
apparently dry, varies 
greatly. To keep healthy 
and secure enough raw 
food material from the 
soil, a plant must contin- 
uously have a great quan- 
tity of water passing 
through its stems and 
branches to the leaves. 
The greater part of this 
water, when it has reached 
the leaves, evaporates from them into the air. Experi- 
ments have shown that, for each pound of dry grain to 
be harvested, from three hundred to five hundred pounds 
of water pass through the plants producing the grain. 
28. Effects of Too Little Water.— When plants 




POTATOES 



_ ^ _ 


■^^ 


450 LBS 






jJ 


v^ -, 


500 LBS 




Xj 




^~., 


1 






450 LBS 




■-^. 


\j 


,^- 


.,^ 


t 


400 LBS 


— -xj 



Courtesy of Soil Improvement 
Committee of the National Fertilizer 
Association. 



WATEK IN THE SOIL 31 

do not receive enough water they stop growing, or grow 
very little. This is both because water is a raw food 
material and because it carries to the leaves the other 
raw food materials which the plant gets from the soil. 
When a plant does not receive enough water, it partly 
closes its breathing pores so that less water evaporates. 
But if the amount of water still given off by the leaves 
is so much that not enough is left to keep the plant stiff 
and rigid, the leaves, and the other green and tender 
parts wilt. 

A leaf is very much like a little toy balloon ; as long 
as the balloon contains enough air, it is round and 
smooth, but, when it does not contain enough air, it 
loses its shape and shrivels. In just the same way, a 
leaf stays firm and in shape as long as it contains enough 
water, but as soon as it holds too little water, it begins 
to wilt and droop. 

29. Effects of Too Much Water. — Plants may 
suffer from too much water in the soil as well as from 
too little. If it rains so hard that water stands for 
some time in a cultivated field, where corn, clover, or 
grains are growing, you know that the plants will die. 
We commonly say they are drowned out. You see, the 
soil has become so wet that the water fills all the spaces 
among the soil particles, and there is no room for the 
air. Good soils must have air in them. The roots of 
plants need air and so do the good bacteria which are 
needed in the soil. 

30. Effects of Water on the Development of 
Roots. — The roots of plants will not grow down into 
any free water in the soil. When plants find the 



32 A^ INTEODUCTIO^ TO AGEICULTURE 

ground too wet, the roots stop growing down and begin 
to spread out near the surface. This develops a shal- 
low root system and crowds all the roots near the sur- 
face. Later, when the weather gets hot and dry, the 
top soil dries out rapidly and the roots being near the 
surface, dry up, because they cannot then grow down 
•quickly enough to reach the moisture deeper in the soil. 
It sometimes occurs that when land is tile drained the 
crops dry out. In such a case one would naturally con- 
clude that the tile removed too much water, but this is 
generally not so. On the contrary, drying out is due 
to the fact that the tile did not remove enough water, 
soon enough. Thus a shallow root development oc- 
curred. Had the roots gone down deeper earlier in the 
season, the crops would not have dried up. 

31. Wet Soils are Cold and Sour. — A soil that is 
very wet is cold. There are two principal reasons for 
this ; the warmer air cannot enter the soil, and also, 
large amounts of water are evaporating from the sur- 
face. Evaporation of a liquid takes away heat. Wet 
soils are generally sour or acid because there is little 
.opportunity for the acid to drain off. 

32. The Amount of Water Held by Soils. — The 
amount of water held by soils depends upon the size of 
the soil particles and the amount of humus the soils 
contain, 

Sandy soils hold about 15 per cent water 
Loam " " " 25 " 
Clay " " '' 30 " " 
Marsh " " " 150 " " " 



WATER IN THE SOIL 



33 




EXPERIMENT SHOWING INCREASE OF 
SURFACE BY SUBDIVISION 



This means that 100 pounds of an average, air dried, 
sandy soil will hold about 15 pounds of water when 
water is added to it, and 100 pounds of a loam soil, 
about 25 pounds, and so on. 

33. How the Soil can be Made to Hold More 
Water. — Humus acts like a sponge in holding water. 
It not only soaks up water but at the same time covers 
itself with water. By soaking up, we here mean that 
water enters into the material. The mineral soil par- 
ticles take no wntev into 
the inside of themselves. 
The water they retain as 
we have alreadv seen, is 
found only in the form of 
a film on the outer surface 
of the soil particles. If 

we take a stone one inch in diameter and break it up into 
one thousand pieces, and then compare the surface area 
of all the pieces with that of the original stone, we shall 
£nd that the sum of the surface area of all these pieces, is 
very much larger than that of the original stone. There- 
fore the amount of film water held by all the pieces would 
be very much greater than that held by the stone. Now 
let us take an illustration of this. A cube of cheese one 
inch square has an area of six square inches. By three 
cuts with a knife, the inch cube can be made into eight 
half-inch cubes. The surfaces of these eight cubes to- 
gether is now twelve square inches or twice that of the 
inch cube. Furthermore, the inch cube offered no space 
into which a liquid could be poured, but the eight smaller 
cubes thrown together offer many little spaces. 



34 AN INTEODUCTIOA^ TO AGKICULTUKE 

34. Humus and Water Holding Capacity. — It 

has been estimated (Farmer's Bulletin 245), that one 
ton of humus will absorb two tons of water and give it 
up readily to growing crops. This would make its 
water capacity 200 per cent. Therefore, we readily con^ 
elude that as the amount of humus in a soil increases, 
the water holding capacity of the soil increases. This 
shows us again the great value of manure, straw, sod^ 
and in fact, all forms of organic matter, in the soil, and 
makes us realize why an effort should always be made 
to return them to the soil instead of permitting such 
materials to decay in piles, or to be burned, or otherwise 
neglected. 

35. The Benefits of Underdrainage. — When in 
any soil free water is inclined to accumulate near the 
surface, so as to interfere with the downward develop- 
ment of the roots, drainage is necessary. There are 
many reasons why soils often contain too much water. 
The land may be too low or too flat. The nature of the 
subsoil may be such that it does not allow the free water 
to pass away quickly enough. Or there may be too 
much seepage from some higher land near by. Under- 
drainage is absolutely necessary to remove this excess 
of free water. When the free water, which in wet 
soils is cold, stale, and foul, and often acid, is carried 
off, there will be more room for air in the soil, the roots 
will grow deeper, and the soil will be warmer. Espe- 
cially in the spring do we need warm air in the soil to 
allow early preparation of the seed bed to hurry the 
growth of young plants, and to hasten the making of the 
raw plant food they need. 



WATER m THE SOIL 35 

36. Methods of Drainage. — There are four com- 
mon methods used in draining land : the surface drains, 
which are generally open ditches ; tile drains ; vertical 
drains; and dynamiting the subsoil. 

Tile Drains. — One of the most satisfactory ways of 
draining land is with tile. The tiles are generally one 
foot long and vary in diameter, four inches being the 
smallest diameter commonly recommended. These tiles 
are laid in a ditch which is three or more feet deep, ac- 



......;::^*dSBili 






■■""Wui 








A TILE DRAIN 



cording to the soil condition. The tiles are placed end 
to end, without cementing, on a uniform grade of two 
or more inches per hundred feet^ and the trench or ditch 
in which they are laid is filled with earth. The free 
water from the soil gets into the tiles through the small 
spaces where the ends join one another and flows through 
the pipes of hollow tiling. The rows of tile are placed 
through the field at distances apart varying from three 
to eight rods, acco^'ding to the character of the soil. 
They are put closer together in heavy soils than they 
are in light. 

Surface Drains. — Fanners sometimes drain their 
land by open ditches, but it is hard to work a field cut 



36 AN INTRODUCTIOiN^ TO AGRICULTUEE 

up in this way. When it is necessary to have such 
ditches, it is best, if possible, to make them so broad 
and so gently sloping as to permit them to be planted 
to grass and to be mowed readily with a mower. 

37. Irrigation. — By irrigation we mean the addi- 
tion of water to soil which does not get enough from the 
rainfall. Large areas of land, amounting to millions 
of acres, which naturally do not receive enough rain- 
fall, have by means of irrigation been brought into culti- 
vation. Irrigation mostlv is confined to arid and semi- 
arid regions. On a small scale, it is, however, also 
practical in some of our southern states where the sum- 
mers tend to be too dry. Some of our richest and most 
valuable soils are found in irrigated regions, land which, 
without irrigation, would be useless. All our large irri- 
gation projects are found in the western states. 

38. Sources of Water. — The most common source 
of water for irrigation is rivers. These are dammed 
quite frequently in a number of places, so as to make 
large storage reservoirs which hold back the fall, winter, 
and early spring water when it is not needed. From 
these reservoirs, canals carry the water to be distributed, 
by means of smaller canals, over the land. Generally 
the amount of water allowed each farmer in an irrigated 
section is limited, and this limit checks all waste and 
insures the most economical use. Thus in the height of 
the growing season, when much water is needed, it is 
available. Small projects often are irrigated by means 
of pumps. That is, the w.ater is pumped from a river 
or from wells into canals, to be distributed. In like 



WATER IN THE SOIL 37 

manner artesian wells also are used for irrigation. 
Although there are many disadvantages to irrigation, 
there is one great advantage and that is that the crops 
can be watered when they need the water most. Two 
to four irrigations a season are generally enough to pro- 
duce most of our common crops. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. If an inch cube were cut into 64 equal cubes, how many- 
cuts would you have to make, how much surface would be 
added by each cut, and how would the final surface compare 
with the original surface? 

2. Give illustrations of capillary attraction not mentioned 
in the book. 

3. Which would be better, to water a lawn or garden a 
little and do it often, or give it a thorough soaking once in 
a while? Why? 

4. Would you pick lettuce early in the morning or in the 
middle of the forenoon ? Why ? 

5. Can every piece of land be drained? What conditions 
are necessary in order that it may be drained? 

6. If the wheat plant uses 450 lbs. of water to produce one 
pound of dry matter, how many tons of water per acre would 
be required to produce a crop of 30 bu. of wheat to the acre? 

7. If one inch of water over an acre weighs nearly 100 
tons, what is the weight of the annual rainfall per acre in 
your locality ? 

8. Why does draining the soil enable a farmer to work it 
earlier in the spring? 

9. Why will plants on well drained land stand a drought 
better than plants on poorly drained land? 



38 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

Bulletins for Sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Studies on Movement of Soil Moisture, Soils Bulletin 38, 

10 cents. 
Mechanics of Soil Moisture, Soils Bulletin 10, 5 cents. 
Moisture Content and Physical Condition of Soils, Soils 

Bulletin 50, 15 cents. 
Water Requirements of Plants, B. P. I. Bui. 284, 15 cents. 
Methods of Applying Water to Crops, Yearbook, Sept., 514, 5 

cents. 
Agricultural Duty of Water, Bulletin 526, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Management of Semi-arid Soils to Conserve Moisture, F. B. 

266. 
Tile Drainage on the Farm, F. B. 524. 
Drainage of Farm Lands, F. B., 187. 

Practical Inforiyiation for Beginners in Irrigation, F. B. 864. 
Farm Reservoirs, F. B. 828. 

Irrigation of Orchards, F. B. 882. a 

Surface Irrigation for Eastern Farms, F. B. 899, 



CHAPTEE V 

TILLAGE 

^' Tillage is manure." 

39. The Ideal Condition of the Soil. — If a seed is 
to germinate readily it needs air, warmth and moisture ; 
and if a plant is to thrive, and have a vigorous root de- 
velopment, it needs a mellow, slightly finned seed bed. 
Such a seed bed is in a good physical condition or is in 
good tilth. Good tillage, proper drainage, organic mat- 
ter, and lime have much to do with the tilth of a soil. 

40. Objects of Tillage. — The term tillage gener- 
ally covers all those operations used in fitting the soil 
for the seed, and in caring for the growth of the crop. 
The principal reasons for the tillage are: to provide a 
good home or growing place for the crop ; to conserve 
moisture ; to liberate raw food materials ; and to destroy 
weeds. The better the physical condition, the greater is 
the water capacity of any particular soil, the more is 
evaporation reduced, and the more satisfactory is the 
capillary movement. Earth brought to the surface from 
a depth of a few feet is not very productive until it has 
been exposed to the weather for some time. Such earth 
needs the action of the air, sunlight, etc., to make it 

productive. To some extent, the same is true of our 

39 



40 AN IXTEODUCTION TO AGEICULTUKE 

Tipper soil in the fields. Weeds must be destroyed 
promptly J as they not only occupy space which belongs 
to the crop but they also rob the soil of moisture and of 
raw food materials which should go to the crop. 

41. The Preparation of the Seed Bed. — Plowing, 
— Generally the first important work necessary in the 
preparation of a good seed-bed is plowing. Thorough 
i)lowing is essential, and if this work is poorly done 
the benefits of all the other operations will be greatly 
lessened. Good plowing is just as essential as good 
soil and good seeds, and unless plowing is done in the 
best manner and at the right time, the best results can- 
not be obtained. The pride of every plowman is a 
straight, well-turned furrow. Its true merit is meas- 
ured by its depth, the manner in which it is turned, and 
the way in which it lies. When properly turned, it 
will present a loosely pulverized furrow-slice which 
completely covers all the vegetation which was on the 
surface. If the land is plowed while it is too wet or 
too dry, not only is good plowing impossible, but the 
soil even may be ruined for at least a year. When land, 
which is not going to be put into crop until the follow- 
ing spring, is plowed in the fall, the complete pulverizing 
of the furrow-slice is not so important, because the lumps 
and clods will cnnnble and pulverize under the action 
of the weather. 

Mixing the Soil with Vegetable Matter. — Land which 
is heavily manured, or which contains much veg-etable 
matter, such as a green manure or a sod, is benefited by 
being disked before it is plowed, so that the organic 
matter may be mixed thoroughly with the soil. In- 



TILLAGE 



41 



jurious effects often result when too much organic mat- 
ter, which has not been thoroughly mixed with the soil, 
is plowed under. This organic matter is likely to form, 
a laver between the furrow-slice and the soil directly 




A GAXG TLOW. — Courtesi/ of the Janesville Machine Co., Janesville, WUi 

beneath it, which may prevent the capillary rise of" 
water. This fact may be demonstrated easily with the 
lamp chimney used in the experiment to illustrate the 
rise of water. 

Half fill the lamp chimney with fine sand or any dry soil. 
Add to this lawn clippings or chopped hay to make a layer- 
about an inch thick, and then fill the remaining space in the 
chimney with the soil material. Now set the bottom in 
water, as you did in experiment before, and note the results. 



Disking. — Disking is especially useful in pulverizing 
plowed sod land, and in loosening any crusted condition 
of the surface of a field which has lain for some time 
after it has been plowed, or on which many small weeds, 



42 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGEICULTUKE 



IMPORTANCE OF [ CULTIVATION 



have started to grow. A disk does work a harrow 
cannot do. 

Harrowing. — The harrow generally follows the plow. 
There is scarcely a crop grown which does not need the 
use of the harrow in the preparation of its seed bed. 
The harrow both levels and fines the topmost layer of 
soil, and also creates an excellent dust mulch for pre- 
venting the loss of soil moisture. The harrow is also 
the most practical implement used for destroying weeds 
while they are still small. 

42. Cultivation. — Grains and cultivated crops are 
sometimes harrowed to loosen a crusted condition of the 
surface soil and to destroy small weeds. This harrow- 
ing must be done lightly and 
at a time when the growing 
crop will be least damaged. 
The weeder finds its principal 
use in this operation. Inter- 
tillage, or cultivation between 
the rows, loosens the surface 
soil to admit air, to help set 
free raw plant food, to con- 
serve water, and to destroy 
weeds. Early cultivation 
should permit a farmer to get 
close to plants without injur- 
ing them. It is necessary that this cultivation leave the 
soil in a fine condition, so that the tiny roots are neither 
injured by the rapid evaporation of moisture, nor left 
uncovered by the soil. As the crop grows, the cultivator 
may be allowed to throw a small amount of soil around 




Courtesy of the Soil Improve- 
ment Committee of the National 
Fertilizer Association. 



TILLAGE 



4S 



the plants, but the old practice of hilling up the crops 
is very objectionable. This is an '' out of date " prac- 
tice which not only does no good, but inflicts injury by 
causing rapid evaporation of soil moisture through ex- 
posing roots, and often by cutting all the roots near the 
surface. Shallow level cultivation with just a slight 
working of the soil toward the plants, should be the rule. 
Two inches is generally deep enough. Cultivation 
should be frequent, weeds should be destroyed while 
small, and the surface of the soil should be kept loose. 
After every rain, when the physical condition of the soil 
is right, the soil should be cultivated to conserve as much 
water as possible. 

43. The Dust Mulch. — We have already spoken a 
number of times about a dust mulch. Now let us try 
to get a clear picture 
of how it is possible 
for this dust mulch to 
check the evaporation 
of moisture from the 
soil. If we put a 
piece of lump sugar 
into a saucer contain- 
ing a little water col- 
ored with a few drops 
of ink, we shall no- 
tice that the colored 
water rises rapidly to 
the top surface. 
This illustrates the capillary rise of water. If we take 
another lump of sugar and drop upon it a " heaping 




THE CUBE FIVE SECONDS AFTERWARD. 

Courtesy of the International Harvester 
Company. 



44 A^^ iktkoductio:n' to agkicultuke 



pile/' all it can hold, of powdered sugar, and place this 
covered lump in the saucer of water we shall notice 
that the colored water reaches only the lowest portion 
of the powdered sugar and stops there. 

Why does not the 
liquid continue to 
rise to the top ? The 
particles of powdered 
sugar are so dry, 
light, and small that 
they hardly touch 
each other and the 
spaces between them 
are rather large. It 
is difficult, under 
these conditions, for 
capillary water to 
rise from one particle 
to another. In just this way a dust mulch, created on 
the soil by constant cultivation, protects the soil against 
too rapid evaporation of water. 

44. Dry Land Farming. — In regions where the 
amount of rainfall is not sufficient to raise a profitable 
crop and where irrigation is too expensive or impossible, 
^' dry farming " has been put to use. 

The aim of this special method of tillage is to save 
what little rainfall there is, by continually stirring the 
ground and keeping, on the surface, a dust mulch to 
check evaporation as much as possible. Sometimes the 
land is tilled for a whole year at a time in order to store 
up sufficient moisture for a crop to be gro^vn the follow- 




MOISTURE WILL NOT PASS OUT THROUGH 

THE POWDERED SUGAR. — Courtesy of the 
International Harvester Company. 



TILLAGE 45 

ing year. This method gives but one crop in two years. 
In regions where there is slightly more rainfall, two 
crops are often grown in three years ; and in some locali- 
ties dry farming permits a crop in every year; but in 
each case the same principles are applied. Farmers 
are now producing good' crops by dry farming, with 
only ten, twelve, or fifteen inches of rainfall annually. 
Dry farming is practiced in many of the Western and 
Southern states ; and practically in all farming sections 
where occasional periods of drought are apt to occur. 
If, during a dry spell, you cultivate or rake your garden 
early each morning to keep a light dust mulch constantly 
on the surface, you are really putting '' dry farming " 
principles into operation. These principles consist in 
checking evaporation and in destroying all weeds so 
that no soil water mav be wasted. 

QUESTIONS AND PKOBLEMS 

1. How may any one who has a garden apply the lessons 
of dry farming? 

2. Describe how you have seen a seed bed prepared. 

3. Can you give any instances where better tillage gave 
better results? Give them. 

4. How many square feet are there in an acre? If a far- 
mer plows eight inches deep, how many cubic feet does he 
m.ove in plowing an acre? 

5. If a cubic foot of soil weighs 80 lbs., what is the weight 
of an acre of soil 8 inches deep? 

6. How many acres are there in a piece of land 32 rods 
long by 20 rods wide? ^ 

7. If land of that measurement is plowed back and forth 
with furrows nine inches wide, how many miles will a man 
travel in plowing it? 



46 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 

8. If by extra cultivation a man can raise 25 bushels of 
potatoes more an acre and he cultivates 6 acres a day, what 
is his gain, allowing- $4.00 per day for a day's work? Use 
the local market price of potatoes. 

9. What attachments to plows do farmers in your com- 
munity use? 

Bulletins for Sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Traction Plowing, B. P. I., Bulletin 170, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 
Care and Repair of Farm Machinery, F. B. 946, 947. 



CHAPTER VI 

ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD IN THE SOIL 

" A fertile soil means a prosperous people." 

In this chapter we shall consider principally the 
question of the raw plant food materials which the plant 
secures from the soil. 

45. Raw Plant Food Materials. — The raw food 
materials necessary to the growth of crops are usually 
spoken of as the elements of plant food. An element, 
according to chemistry, is a substance composed of only 
one kind of matter. There are about ei^htv distinct 
and different elements in the world. Most substances 
which we see around us are made up of several elements 
combined. Two or more elements combined make what 
is called a compound. 

The elements on which a plant feeds enter the plants, 
not as elements, but united with other elements in the 
form of compounds. There are, in fact, ten different 
elements which are necessary for plants to have for 
food. These are: 

1. Oxygen 4. l^itrogen 7. Calcium 

2. Hydrogen 5. Phosphorus 8. Magnesium 

3. Carbon 6. Potassium 9. Iron 



10. Sulphur 



47 



48 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 

Oxygen. — Oxygen is a gas that forms a part of air 
and water. It forms about one-fifth of the volume of 
the air. Whenever anything burns, you may know that 
oxygen is present, for nothing can bum without oxygen. 
Plants get their supply of oxygen, which they need for 
food, from the air and from water. Water is a com- 
pound of hydrogen and oxygen, and this water is taken 
into the plant only from the soil by means of the root 
hairs. If there is plenty of water, the supply of oxygen 
which a plant requires for raw food need not worry the 
farmer. 

Hydrogen. — Hydrogen is a gas obtained from water. 
It is the lightest gas known and it burns with a nearly 
colorless and hot flame. A plant gets the hydrogen it 
needs from water in the soil by means of its root hairs. 

Carbon. — Carbon exists commonly as charcoal. The 
black substance on the end of a burned match is carbon. 
Wood and coal contain carbon, and when they are burned 
the carbon escapes into the air in the form of a color- 
lesfe gas. The carbon combines with oxygen and forms 
the compound called carbon dioxide, or carbonic-acid 
gas. The breath from our lungs contains carbon diox- 
ide, as you have learned in your study of physiology. 
Man and beast do not use the carbon dioxide in the air, 
but plants are constantly taking it in through the pores 
in the leaves, and use it as one of the raw food ma- 
terials. 

Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium. — Three of 
the most important elements of plant food are nitrogen, 
phosphorus, and potassium. These elements the plant 
gets from the soil ; for they, in their various compounds. 



ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD 



49 



make up the most important part of the mineral matter 
which the plant takes from the soil. Plants need a con- 
siderable amount of these elements and in many soils 
there is not nearly enough of them. Commercial fer- 
tilizers are often used to supply this need, and the price 
of any fertilizer depends upon the amount of these three 
elements it contains. There are, however, as we shall 
soon see, other ways besides the use of commercial f erti- 




I I 1 ' T — 





PHOSPHORUS 
POT CULTURE 



POTASSIUM 



In the above jars, nitrogen is evidently the plant food needed most.— 
Courtesy of the Iowa State Department of Public Instruction 



lizers, to supply these three important raw plant foods 

to the soil. 

Nitrogen.— Nitrogen is a gas. It forms four-fifths 
of the air we breathe, the other part being mostly oxygen. 
The plant gets all its nitrogen through its roots in the 
form of a soluble compound called a nitrate. There are 
two sources of nitrogen in the soil. The principal one 
is the organic matter which the soil contains. The 
other is the air in the soil. The compound of nitrogen, 



50 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 

called a nitrate, which the roots of a plant take up, is 
made in the soil by the good bacteria, from the organic 
matter and from the nitrogen in the soil air. 

Legumes are always rich in nitrogen. When they 
decay in the soil, the nitrogen they contain is left in a 
form which is readily changed back into a nitrate. This 
is partly the reason why crops like clover and alfalfa 
have such a good influence upon crops which follow them 
in a field. Nitrogen is the most expensive element of 
plant food, and there is no cheaper way to supply it 
than by growing legumes. Since nearly all the nitro- 
gen found in the soil is combined with other elements 
in the organic matter or humus, it is very easy to see 
that the soil which is rich in humus is the one which is 
also rich in nitrogen. On the other hand, a soil which 
is poor in humus, is also poor in nitrogen. Besides 
growing legumes, another common way to add nitrogen 
to a soil, is to put manure, nitrate of soda, or other 
fertilizers containing nitrogen upon it. 

Phosphorus. — You have all heard of phosphorus, for 
it is commonly used in the making of matches. It is a 
scarcer element than nitrogen, though more familiar to 
us. A plant gets phosphorus, as it does nitrogen, from 
the soil. When the supply of phosphorus in a soil is 
once used up, there is no way of supplying this element 
again except by adding to the soil some substance con- 
taining phosphorus. The element phosphorus -^ is never 

1 Because phosphorus is never found free in the soil or in crops 
but always combined, it is common in some states, to speak not 
of the actual amount of phosphorus in the soil or crops, but of tlie 
amount of phosphoric oxide, called " phosphoric acid." To change 
the amount of phosphorus to an approximate amount of " phos- 



ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD 51 

found free in the soil, because it is very active and 
readily unites with oxygen ; — that is, it takes fire easily. 
You see this fact illustrated everv time vou strike a 
match. The tip of a match contains a compound of 
phosphorus and when it is rubbed or scratched, the 
phosphorus unites with the oxygen of the air and begins 
to burn, thus setting fire to the match. The root hairs 
absorb the phosphorus in the form of a soluble com- 
pound, called a phosphate. The most common mate- 
rials which can be added to a soil to increase its amount 
of phosphorus are manure, ground bones, ground phos- 
phate rock, and a substance called acid phosphate, made 
from ground phosphate rock and ground bones. 

Potassium. — Potassium is a silvery white metal, soft 
as wax, and light enough to float on water. It is very 
active and unites so readily with oxygen that it has to 
be kept in air-tight bottles or under kerosene to prevent 
it coming in contact with oxygen or water. Naturally 
then we cannot expect to find any free potassium in the 
soil. A plant gets all its potassium in the form of com- 
pounds dissolved in the soil water. The mineral felds- 
par found in granite rocks is the chief source of potas- 
sium in the soil. When the supply of potassium in the 
soil is once used up, there is no way to replenish it 
except by adding substances which contain it. The com- 
monest substances added to soils to increase the amount 
of potassium are wood ashes, manure, and certain other 
fertilizers which contain potassium. It is common in 

phoric acid " we need only to multiply the amount of phorpliorus 
by 2.3. When the amount of " phosphoric acid " is divided by 2.3, 
we get the approximate equivalent amount of phosphorus. 



52 AN INTEODUCTIO^" TO AGRICULTUKE 

many places to speak of the amount of ^' potash " con- 
tained in soils and in crops instead of the amount of 
potassium. '^ Potash " is a compound of potassium and 
oxygen/ 

Other Plant Foods. — Besides the six principal plant 
foods just described, a plant also needs the minerals, 
calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphur. Most soils con- 
tain the iron and sulphur they need and the root hairs 
of plants take up these elements dissolved in the form 
of compounds in the soil water. Many soils, however, 
are lacking in calcium and magnesium. Calcium makes 
up a large part of limestone and of all other forms of 
lime. Although calcium is a plant food, it is not so 
much needed in the soil for food as for keeping the soil 
sweet. Magnesium, too, is needed both for a plant food 
and for sweetening soils. Neither of these elements, 
calcium and magnesiiun, is ever found by itself, in a 
free state, but is alwavs combined with other elements 
in the form of compounds. 

46. Amount of Raw Plant Food in Soils. — Soils 
differ very much in the quantity of raw plant food which 
they contain. When the amount of raw plant food in a 
soil is being estimated, only the really important raw 
food in a soil is usually considered, that is, the nitrogen, 
phosphorus and potassium. The quantity of this is 
sometimes expressed in pounds, and sometimes in 
its per cent, of the whole weight of the soil which 
is being considered. Generally this is the top seven 

1 The amount of potassium multiplied by 1.2 gives the ap- 
proximate amount of potash ; and the amount of potash divided by 
1.2 gives the approximate amount of potassium. 



ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD 53 

inches of a soil, because that is the part which forms the 
plow land. According to the usual estimation, an acre 
of ordinary loam soil, about seven inches deep, weighs 
about 2,000,000 pounds. When an acre of soil contains 
about 4000 pounds of nitrogen, 2000 pounds of phos- 
phorus and 25,000 pounds of potassium, it is well sup- 
plied with the important elements of raw plant food. 
Soil surveys state the amount of raw plant food in the 
common soils of a communitv. 

47. Available Plant Food. — Most of the raw plant 
food is in the soil in very much the same way that a 
stone would be in a glass of water. That is, the stone 
is in the water but it is not a part of the water. In 
other words the stone is not soluble in the water. In 
just the same way most of the raw plant food found in 
the soil is not soluble, and therefore is not in a condition 
to be used by plants for food. This is really a very 
good thing, because if all the raw food material dis- 
solved readily in the soil water, the rains would wash it 
all out, and in a very short time there would be none left 
in the soil. That part of the raw plant food materials 
which through the action of the air, acids, soil water, 
and bacteria, becomes dissolved in the soil water just 
as sugar dissolves in water, may be taken up as food 
by plants through their root hairs. Such raw plant food 
is* called available. But that part of the raw food ma- 
terials which remains in the soil water, just as sand does 
in water, cannot be taken up as food by plants, and is 
called unavailable. 

48. How the Elements of Plant Food Get into the 
Plant. — The raw food materials in the soil must be dis- 



54 AN INTEODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTUEE 

solved in water. When the root hairs come in contact 
with this water, some of it passes through their delicate 
wall by a process called osmosis. As fast as the root 
hairs make use of this raw food, more of it is absorbed 
by the root hairs and thus the process continues. In- 
side of each root hair is a liquid-like substance called 
protoplasm^ which is the living part of the plant. This 
protoplasm in the root hairs, not only draws in the soil 
solution but also passes it on to neighboring parts, and, 
this action continues until the soil solution reaches the 
leaves. Thus by a constantly moving current the raw 
food materials are conducted up to the leaves, to be 
changed into nutrients so that all the tissues of the plant 
may be nourished. 

Put a slice of a raw potato, about one-fourth of an inch 
thick, into a glass containing a strong salt solution. Put an- 
other similar slice into a glass of plain water. After a 
day remove each and notice the difference. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Name four kinds of plants that are raised primarily for 
their leaves or stalks. 

2. What commercial fertilizers are used in your connnun- 
ity and what elements of plant food do they supply ? 

3. Give a list of substances containing considerable carbon. 

4. What common substances are there which are chiefly 
carbon ? 

5. Have you ever seen any phosphorus? Have you ever 
used anything that contained phosphorus ? 

6. Mention one of the most common substances containing 
potassium. 

7. Have you ever seen magnesium powder burned to make 
a flashlight for taking a photograph ? 



ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD 55 

8. Is it a good practice to rake leaves into the road and 
burn them? • 

Bulletins for Sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Minerals Composition of Soil Particles, Soils Bui. 54, 10 
cents. 

Nitrogenous Soil Constituents j, Soils Bui. 87, 15 cents. 

Phosphoric Acid, Bui. 143, 5 cents. 

Results of Investigations on Rothamsted Soils, Exp. Sta. 
Bui. 106, 10 cents. 

Nitrogenous Fertilizers Obtainable in U. S., Soil Bui. 37, 5 
cents. 

The Recovery of Potash as a By-Product in the Cement In- 
dustry, Dept. Bulletin 572, 5 cents. 



CHAPTER VII 

SOIL FERTILITY 

" It is not the land itself that constitutes the farmer's 
wealth, but it is in the constituents of the soil, which serve 
for the nutrition of plants, that this wealth truly consists." — 
Liehig. 

49. How Soils Become Unfertile. — Whenever a 
soil is constantly cropped, and little or nothing is re- 
turned to it, to keep up its supply of raw plant food, 
that soil slowly and gradually changes, becoming less 
productive. Constant cropping tends to decrease the 
amount of humus, the amount of the elements of plant 
food, and the amount of lime, in the soil ; and it also 
tends to destroy the good physical condition of the soil. 

Changes in Physical Condition. — When lime and 
humus in a soil are destroyed, and when soil acids ac- 
cumulate, the physical condition of the soil changes. 
If you compare some good soil with some poor soil you 
can easily see what the changes have been. The poor 
soil is one which has lost its light, crumbly condition. It 
packs easily, especially if it is a loam or clay soil. Its 
color, also, has become lighter and its power to hold 
water less. It is less favorable to the growth of soil 
bacteria and in it less plant food is made available. 

Elements af Plant Food Removed by Crops. — Table 
2 in the Appendix shows the average amount of the 

56 



SOIL FEKTILITY 



57 



three essential elements of plant food in the various 
crops. If one knows the weight of the crop harvested 
from an acre of land^ he can, from this table, determine 
approximately the amounts of these elements removed 
from an acre. It has been calculated that a ton of 
timothy hay removes from the soil about 18.8 lbs. of 
nitrogen; 2.8 lbs. of phosphorus, and 23.6 lbs. of potas- 




A SOIL. FERTILITY BARREL 

The water level can rise no higher than the lowest stave. The fertility 
of the soil is limited by the lowest amounts of its most indispensable ele- 
ments. — From Wisconsin Bulletin 265. 



slum; and 50 bushels of oats and 1% tons of oat straw 
remove 26.6 lbs. of nitrogen; 6 lbs. of phosphorus, and 
67.6 lbs. of potassium. These figures are here given 
merely to show that no two crops use the elements of 
plant food in similar amounts or in similar proportions. 
50. The Use to a Plant of the Elements of Plant 
Food. — Potassium. — Most of the potassium goes into 



58 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

the straw and stalks of the plants. It strengthens and 
stiffens these parts. Weak stalks and weak stems in 
common farm crops are an indication that not enough 
potassium is available. Besides strengthening and 
stiffening plants, an ample supply -of potassium hastens 
the maturing of plants. 

Phosphorus. — Much of the phosphorus found in 
plants is in their seeds. Phosphorus helps to fill out 
^he seeds and make them plump. Some of the phos- 
phorus in the grain is discarded in the bran when 
flour is made, and for this reason white flour is not 
Lso complete a food for man as whole wheat flour. 
Phosphorus also causes plants to ripen more quickly. 
When the conditions for plant growth are favorable, 
the occurrence of small, shriveled grains is an indi- 
cation that there has not been enough available phos- 
phorus for the plant. 

Nitrogen. — The greater part of the nitrogen is also 
found in the seed. An abundant supply of nitrogen 
also results in the production of large, healthy leaves 
and stalks. Hence nitrogen is especially valuable for 
the plants which are raised for their leaves and stems, 
such as hay, asparagus, and lettuce. Too much nitro- 
gen in a soil tends to retard maturity. 

51. Evidence of Lack of Plant Food. — A lack 
of any of these elements, potassium, phosphorus, and 
nitrogen, will greatly lessen a crop. Whenever a crop 
is increased by adding to the soil a material contain- 
ing any of these elements in an easily available form, 
you may know that the soil itself is failing to furnish 
.enough of that particular element of plant food. 



SOIL FEETILITY 



59 



52. Fertilizers. — An important question for every 
farmer to consider is how he is going to provide the 
plant food needed by his growing crops. Often he 
has to do this by adding to the soil some substance con- 
taining one or more of the three essential elements of 
plant food, phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen. 
Any substance so added is called a fertilizer. There 




Universihj of Illinois Circtilar 168 
LAND TREATED WITH MAN^rRE, LIMESTONE AND A PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER 

are two classes of fertilizers, the natural and the arti- 
ficial or commercial. Natural fertilizing products 
such as manure, weeds, and crop residues like roots, 
straw, stalks, and leaves, are examples of natural 
fertilizers. ^Manufactured fertilizing products such 
as nitrate of soda and bone meal, which are prepared 
and sold in the commercial market, are examples of 
commercial fertilizers. 



60 AN INTRODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTURE 



53. Manure. — Close at hand for every farmer is 
a most valuable source of plant food. Barnyard 
manure contains all of the three essential elements of 
plant food. The average composition of farm manure 
compiled from many analyses is approximately as fol- 
lows: Water 75% and organic matter 25%. One ton 
of manure will contain on an average 10 lbs. of nitro- 




University of Illinois Circular 168 

LAXD TREATED WlTil MANURE ONLY 

gen, 3 lbs. of phosphonis, 8 lbs. of potassium, and about 
500 lbs. of organic matter. The remainder will be 
mostlv water. This analvsis, however, will varv 
greatly according to the kind of animals from which 
the manure comes, the amount and kind of bedding 
used, the feed fed to the animals, and the manner in 
which the manure has been kept. Much of the value 
is often wasted by the slipshod way in which many 



SOIL FERTILITY 61 

farmers take care of the manure. Manure which has 
been " fired " or been exposed to rain has lost much of 
its raw food materials. To preserve its full value, 
manure should be kept moist and compact, or else it 
should immediately be spread upon the land. 

Value of Manure. — If the same amounts of raw 
plant food which are found in a ton of average farm 
manure were purchased in the form of commercial 
fertilizers, they would cost between two and three dol- 
lars. The organic matter which manure adds to a 
soil also has a little value which is not figured in the 
estimate just given. For in addition to the elements 
of plant food and the organic matter, manure contains 
enormous numbers of beneficial bacteria. 

Manure Contains Little Phosphorus. — In spite of 
all its good ingredients manure is, however, very low 
in phosphorus. You can see this from the analysis 
already given. In most of our soils, too, phosphorus 
is the element of plant food most lacking. For these 
two reasons it is becoming a wise farm practice to add 
to manure, or to reinforce it, with some phosphorus 
fertilizer. Raw phosphate rock, very finely ground, 
is bein": widelv used to reinforce manure and often used 
as an absorbent in the barn. 

Amounts of Manure to Apply. — It is estimated that 
ten tons of manure applied to an acre of land once 
every four or five years is a fair application of manure 
for ordinary farming. It is not unusual, however, for 
a truck farmer to apply as much as twenty tons to 
one acre in one year. It has been repeatedly proven 
that manure put on the soil evenly and rather lightly 



62 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

over a large area will give larger returns than manure 
applied irregularly and heavily over a small area. 
This is why a manure spreader should be used on all 
farms which have enough stock to justify the farmer 
in buvino^ one. 

If a farmer adds to his land ten tons of average 
manure per acre once in four years^ he will be adding 
about 100 lbs., of nitrogen, 30 lbs. of phosphorus, and 
80 lbs. of potassium. The question he should then ask 
himself is: Will this be sufficient to replenish the 
amount of these three elements removed bv four vears 
of cropping ? It is safe to say that proper calculations 
on his part will show that there is much more raw 
plant food removed from the soil than there is returned 
to it. He now faces a new and serious problem, 
namely, how long with such a system of farm practice 
will his soil continue to be productive. This will de- 
pend on the amount of plant food in the soil. If our 
land is to remain productive, farmers everywhere 
must face and work out these problems. In making 
calculations like the one just suggested, it is customary 
to omit the amount of nitrogen removed by a legume 
such as clover, because the nitrogen which such a crop 
contains is said to come from the air. 

Care of Manure, — The best method of handling 
manure is to haul it to the field dav bv dav, as it is 
made. Unless manure is kept moist and compact and 
is preserved in such a manner that the liquid part of 
it cannot be washed away by rains, much of its value 
will be lost. Manure should never be allowed to lie 
exposed in piles for very long periods. All records 



SOIL FEKTILITY 63 

show that it loses in weight and in vahie rapidly if 
allowed to accumulate in large piles. Knowing how to 
properly care for manure and how to get the most value 
out of it is indeed an art for a farmer. 

54. Crop Residues. — Whenever crop residues, such 
as stubble, corn stalks, sod, etc., are plowed into the soil, 
they decay rapidly and leave the elements of plant 
food in such a form that these elements become easilv 
av^ailable for the succeeding crops. The roots of deep- 
rooted plants add considerable plant food to the surface 
soil, and thus some plant food, which ordinarily would 
be out of the reach of the roots of shallow-rooted crops, 
is put where these shallow roots can get it. Every one 
knows that a crop which follows clover, alfalfa, or some 
other legume is usuallv better than it is when the same 
crop follows a non-legume, such as corn or wheat. This 
improvement is partly due to the fact that stubble and 
roots of legumes contain more nitrogen than do the 
roots of non-legumes, and partly, also, to the fact that 
these legume residues decompose more readily and 
liberate the plant food more quickly than do the residues 
of non-le2:umes. 

55. Commercial Fertilizers. — Commercial fertiliz- 
ers are materials, prepared and sold in the market, 
containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, in a 
form suitable for use. These fertilizers are commonly 
sold by the ton in two hundred pound sacks. Many 
of them look like a coarse powder much like wood 
ashes. Others are much like salt in texture but are 
never as white and clean as salt. 

If the school has samples of any commercial fertilizers 



64 A^ mTUODJJCTlON TO AGEICULTUEE 




make a study of them. Note their color, texture, solu- 
bility in water and their reaction with litmus paper. 

The value of any commercial fertilizer depends upon 
the amount and the solubility of the three essential 

^ elements it contains. 

The price of com- 
mercial fertilizers 
varies greatly. Dur- 
ing the European 
War the value of 
nitrogen and potas- 
sium became so high 
that it almost pro- 
hibited the use of 
these elements for 
agricultural pur- 
poses. Ordinarily 
18 cents per pound 
is the average price 
of nitrogen in com- 
mercial fertilizers, 
that of phosphorus 8 cents and potassium 6 cents 
per pound, depending upon the materials from which 
they are made. A mixed fertilizer is one that contains 
two or all three of the essential elements. One con- 
taining all three of the elements is called a complete 
fertilizer. 

56. Amounts of Raw Plant Food in Fertilizers. 
— The amount of raw plant food contained in mixed 
fertilizers varies greatly. To indicate their composi- 
tion to the buyer, fertilizers are called by numbers 



No. 6010 

JOHN DOE & COMPANY, 
of Columbus, Ohio, 

Guarantee this 

SNOWFLAKE FERTILIZER 

to contain not less than 
2.4 per cent, of total nitrogen, (N), 
10.0 per cent, of potash, (K2O), soluble in 

water, 
8.0 per cent, of soluble and reverted 

phosphoric acid, (P2O0), and 
1.0 per cent, of insoluble phosphoric ajcid, 
(Pa0=). 



Purdue University 
Agricultural7 
Experiment .Station, 
LaFayclte, Indiana. 




State Chemist. 



Purdue University Agricultural Experiment 
^Station Bulletin 1 99 



SOIL FERTILITY 05 

which show the proportions of the three chief elements 
of phmt food which they contain, as for instance, a 
2-9-2 fertilizer or a 4-9-10 fertilizer. The numbers 
2-8-2 (read two, eight, two), tell respectively the per 
•cent, of available nitrogen or ammonia, " phosphoric 
acid," and potash found in such a fertilizer. The bags 
in which fertilizers are packed must bear printed 
statements of their composition. 

The formula of commercial fertilizers generally 
gives the amount of ammonia, the amount of '' phos- 
phoric acid '' and the amount of potash contained in 
them, and not the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and 
potassium. However, to change the amounts of am- 
monia, '' phosphoric acid " and potash to their equiva- 
lent amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, use 
the following formula : 

To change ammonia to nitrogen divide by 1.2. 
" " " phosphoric acid " to phosphorus divided by 2.3. 
" " potash to potassium divide by 1.2. 

57. Fertilizer Laws. — Practically every state now 
has a law governing the sale of commercial fertilizers. 
These laws compel the manufacturers to print on each 
;sack the following: 

Per cent of nitrogen or ammonia 

" " " available phosphoric acid 

" " total " " 

" " " potash 

The sum of the available and insoluble '^ phosphoric 
:acid " equals the total amount of " phosphoric acid." 

58. Use of Commercial Fertilizers. — There are 



66 A:N^ INTKODUCTION to AGKICULTURE 

certain special crops, such as potatoes and tobacco, for 
which commercial fertilizers are extensively used. 
Truck farmers and market gardeners, also, make large 
use of them. You can readily see why this is so. 
These growers are raising crops which they want to 
grow quickly and yield heavily, and such crops 
demand much available raw plant food. This the 
growers can supply most promptly through the use of 
commercial fertilizers. Where it is known that soils 
are very deficient in phosphorus and potassium, maxi- 
mum crop yields cannot be expected until these ele- 
ments of plant food have been replenished in the soil. 
Commercial fertilizers can only produce the best re- 
sults where the soil contains a good supply of organic 
matter and is not acid. The amount of commercial 
fertilizer to use varies greatly, depending upon the 
soil, the crop, and the grade of the fertilizer. In some 
instances, as when nitrate of soda is used for a top 
dressing, 150 pounds per acre is all that is used, while 
at the other extreme, truck farmers and potato grow- 
ers often use as much as 2000 pounds, or a ton, of a 
complete fertilizer to an acre. 

59. Mixing Fertilizers.^ — A 2-8-2 Fertilizer. — In 
a ton of 2-8-2 fertilizer there are 2% or 40 lbs. of 
available nitrogen or ammonia, 8% or 160 lbs. of avail- 
able '' phosphoric acid " and 2% or 40 lbs. of avail- 
able potash. These materials are not found in the 
sacks of fertilizers as nitrogen, ammonia, ^^ phosphoric 
acid," and potash, but are in compounds which upon 

1 Table 3 in the Appendix gives the amount of plant food in 
common fertilizing materials. 



SOIL FEKTILITY 67 

decomposition, would yield them. A 2-8-2 fertilizer 
could be made as suggested below. 

250 lbs. of 16% nitrate of soda would yield 40 lbs. of nitro- 
gen. 
1000 " " 16% acid phosphate would yield 160 lbs of 

" phosphoric acid." 
80 " " 50% chloride of potassium would yield 40 lbs. 

of potash. 

1330 " '^ materials would furnish 240 lbs. of raw plant 

- food; and 670 lbs. of a so-called filler 
would be added to make the ton. 

A J^-9-10 Fertilizer. — In this fertilizer let us assume 
that the first number of the formula refers to ammonia 
instead of nitrogen, then a ton would contain 

4% or 80 lbs. of available ammonia 
9% or 180 " " " " phosphoric acid." 

and 10% or 180 " " " potash 

This fertilizer could be mixed as suggested below: 

400 lbs. of 20% nitrate of soda would yield 80 lbs. of am- 
monia 
1100 " " 16% acid phosphate would yield 180 lbs. of 

" phos. acid." 

400 " " 50% chloride of potassium would yield 200 lbs. 

of potash. 



1900 " " materials would furnish 460 lbs. of raw plant 

food and only 100 lbs. of a "filler" 
would be required. The 4-9-10 fertilizer 
is commonly called a high grade fertilizer 
because it contains little " filler ;" the 
2-8-2 fertilizer is an example of a low 
grade fertilizer. 



68 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 



60. Green Manuring. — Green manuring is the 
plowing under of green crops. Its main purpose is 

to increase the amount of or- 
ganic matter in the soil. 
Any green crop which makes 



r 



GREEN MANURES 



--rr^ 



LEGUMES 

CLOVER 
ALFALFA 
VETCHES 
COWPEAS 
SOY BEANS 









»wVl w 




; NONJJBGUME S 



RYE ■ 

OATS 

RAPE 

MILLET 

SORGHUM 

BUCKWHEAT 




MATER O^Lt 



NO NODUlis] j 



Courtesii of the S!oil Improve- 
ment Committee of the National 
Fertilizer Association. 



a large growth in a short 
time and which will decay 
readily in the soil, is suited 
for green manuring. There 
is no quicker way to im- 
prove light, sandy, and grav- 
elly, or heavy clay, soils than 
by increasing the amount of 
organic matter in them. 
Leguminous plants are the most valuable for green 
manuring as they add considerable nitrogen to the soil. 
61. Cover Crops. — Besides adding organic matter 
to the soil, green manure crops are often planted to 
cover the land during an idle period. Any winter crop, 
such as winter wheat, vetch, rye, or any winter green 
manure crop may be called a cover crop, as these protect 
the land from washing and blowing during the fall, 
winter and early spring. 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Would you consider manure or commercial fertilizers 
the best form of fertilizer for sandy soils ? 

2. Do farmers in your vicinity use any commercial fertil- 
izers? What kinds? 

3. Why is grain grown on the same field year after year apt 
to lodge? 

4. Why are seeds valuable for food? 



SOIL FEKTILITY 69 

5. What are some of the different ways of caring for 
manure that you have seen? 

6. Suggest some ways by means of which you could deter- 
mine what particular elements of plant food might be lacking 
in a soil. 

Bulletins for Sale by Superintendent of Public Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Fertility of Soils as Affected hy Manures, Soil Bulletin 48, 

10 cents. 
Factors Influencing Soil Fertility, Soil Bulletin 40, 10 cents. 
Crop Yields in Relation to Soil Fertility, Soil Bulletin 57, 20 

cents. 
Composition of Commercial Fertilizers, Soil Bulletin 58, 10 

cents. 
Fertilizers for Oats, Hay and Other Crops, Soil Bulletin 67, 

10 cents. 
Fertilizers for Potato Soils, Soil Bulletin 65, 5 cents. 
Fertilizers from Industrial Wastes, Yearbook, Sep., 728, 5 

cents. 
Conservation of Fertilizer Materials from Minor Sources, 

Yearbook, Sep., 733, 5 cents. 
Phosphate Rock, Our Greatest Fertilizer Asset, Yearbook, 

Sept., 730, 5 cents. 
The Sources of Nitrogenous Fertilizers, Yearbook, Sep., 729, 

5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Barnyard Manure, F. B. 192. 

C ommercial Fertilizers, C omposition and Use, F.- B. 44. 
Use of C ommercial Fertilizers in Southern States, F. B. 398. 
Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring, F. B. 278. 



CHAPTEE VIII 

LEGUMINOUS CROPS AND ROTATION OF CROPS 

" Phosphorus, lime, and plenty of clover 
Will make the old farm bloom all over." 



ALTAtf A A DROUTH RESISTER 

CORN ALFALFA 



62. Clover and Its Relatives. — Two of the most 
useful crops that cau be grown on the farm are clover 

and alfalfa. Clover 
and alfalfa are leg- 
umes. All legumes 
have irregular flow- 
ers, somewhat similar 
to those of the pea, 
and bear their seeds 
in pods or legumes. 
Below is a list of the 




JT IS ALSO A SUSaOiLER 

AND 

FARMS ANOTHER FARM 



Ei«-:««ffiaa:^>>>x::a«»>;>»x..:.:.^^^^^ 



Courtesy of the International Harvester 
Company 



alfalfa 

peas 

beans 



Canada peas 

peanuts 

vetch 



common legumes: 



red clover 
alsike clover 
white clover 
sweet clover 
soy beans 
velvet beans 



Compare the flowers of a number of legumes and note their 
similarity. 

70 



LEGUMINOUS CKOPS 



71 



63. Legumes as Nitrogen Gatherers. — We have 
already mentioned the fact that clover and other legumes 
have a special way of 
getting available ni- 
trogen from the soil, 
which non-legumin- 
ous plants do not 
have. Since nitro- 
gen is in the air, we 
might expect that all 
plants could get this 
nitrogen through 

their leaves, but no 
plants are able to do 
this. 

All le2;iiminous 
plants usually have 
on their roots, little 
swellings called nod- 
ules or tubercles. 
These tubercles con- 
tain bacteria which have the power not only of taking 
the gas, nitrogen, from the soil, but also of making it 
into a nitrate, by uniting it with other elements. This 
nitrate serves as a raw food material for the plants on 
which the bacteria live. 

Carefully dig up a clover, pea or bean plant, and gently 
shake the soil from the roots and notice the tubercles. It 
will not do to pull up the plants, as the tubercles will then 
be left in the ground. 




RED CLOVER ROOTS 

Showing Tubercles 



72 AN IKTKODUCTION TO AGEICULTUKE 

Amounts of Nitrogen in Legumes. — One ton of red 
clover hay contains approximately -iO lbs. of nitrogen ; 
one ton of alfalfa hay, 47 lbs., and one ton of soy bean 
hay, 48 lbs. It has been estimated that the roots and 
stubble of red clover and of alfalfa plants contain about 
one-third as much nitrogen as is found in the parts 
of the plant harvested. When the roots of legumes 
decay, the nitrogen they contain readily becomes avail- 
able for the crops which follow. This is one of the 
reasons why planting of legumes has such a beneficial 
effect upon the crops which follow them in the 
fields. 

Inoculation. — Sometimes the bacteria which make 
the tubercles on the roots of alfalfa, soy beans and all 
legumes, are not found in the soil where these crops are 
planted. Then, unless there is enough available nitro- 
gen in the soil to supply the relatively large amount 
these plants require, they will not grow well. It is 
essential that these tubercle-making bacteria be added 
to the soil at the time of planting. These bacteria may 
be obtained from some field on which the particular 
legume, with roots showing a good supply of tubercles^^ 
has been growing successfully. If soil from this suc- 
cessful field is spread on the field about to be sown 
to the same leguminous crop, at the rate of 600 to 1000 
lbs. per acre, enough bacteria will undoubtedly be 
supplied. When we add bacteria to a soil in the way 
just described, we call the process inoculation. In- 
oculation may also be accomplished by sprinkling the 
seeds with a liquid containing the desired kind of 
bacteria. Such a liquid is called a culture. Cultures 



LEGUMINOUS CKOPS 7a 

of bacteria may be obtained from the State Experiment 
Stations, and from the Department of Agriculture at 
Washington. They may also be purchased from manu- 
facturers. 

64. Other Uses of Legumes. — Leguminous plants, 
benefit the soil in still other ways. Many of them, 
especially alfalfa and red clover, are deep feeders ; that 
is, their roots go far down into the soil. Thus they 
feed on materials which many other plants cannot 
reach. When these deep-reaching roots decay, they 
leave the ground porous and thus permit, more readily, 
the entrance of water, air and other roots. 

When a crop of clover or alfalfa is plowed under, 
not only are much nitrogen and organic matter added 
to the soil, but the amount of other raw materials, is 
considerably increased in the top soil. For instance, 
one ton of red clover hay contains about 40 lbs. of 
nitrogen, while one ton of timothy hay contains only 
18 lbs. Alfalfa hay is even richer in nitrogen than 
is red clover hay, for one ton of alfalfa hay contains- 
nearly 50 lbs. of nitrogen. Also since in one season 
two or more cuttings of alfalfa are generally obtained 
from one field, the crop yield of alfalfa is consider- 
ably greater than that of the other hay plants. For 
these two reasons, its richness in nitrogen and its 
greater crop yield, alfalfa is becoming a very popular 
crop in all parts of the country. Manure from animals- 
fed on legumes is very rich in nitrogen. 

The seeds of certain legumes are especially nutritious 
for man and for beasts. Beans and peas, and peanuts, 
for example, have always been used for food. They 



74 AN IXTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

are all rich in nitrogen and may to a large extent take 
the place of meat. 

65. Legumes Need Lime. — Nearly all leguminous 
plants require a sweet and well drained soil. On sour 
soils, especially if the amount of available nitrogen is 
not very large, it is practically impossible to grow most 
legumes. One of the principal reasons for this is that 
the bacteria which make the tubercles and which sup- 
ply the plants with available nitrogen, do not grow well 
in a sour soil and often do not grow at all. Often red 
clover refuses to grow on old fields where formerly it 
has grown luxuriantly, merely because the soil has be- 
come too sour. Alfalfa is even more dependent upon a 
sweet soil than is clover ; and it always pays, before 
attempting to grow alfalfa, to see that the supply of 
lime in the soil is ample. Neglecting liming and 
inoculation in growing alfalfa are the principal causes 
of failure with this most valuable crop. One to two 
tons of finely ground limestone, or one-half to one 
ton of slaked lime per acre are generally used to 
sweeten sour soils and to fit them for either clover or 
alfalfa. 

66. Fixation of Nitrogen and Nitrification. — The 
process of getting nitrogen from the soil air and chang- 
ing it into a nitrate, so as to make it available for the 
use of plants, as we have described in talking of 
leguminous plants, is called fixation of nitrogen. To a 
very small extent atmospheric nitrogen is also '' fixed,'' 
that is, put into the soil in the form of a nitrate, by 
other bacteria than those which live on the roots of 
plants. We call these free living bacteria. 



LEGUMINOUS CEOPS ' 75 

The term nitrification is often confused with the term 
fixation of nitrogen. Nitrification means making 
nitrates from the nitrogen combined with other elements 
in organic matter. When organic matter decays in the 
soil, certain bacteria act upon the nitrogen contained in 
this organic matter, and ultimately change it into a 
nitrate, in which form it is available for raw plant food, 

67. Rotations of Crops. — The term '' crop rota- 
tion " means the growing on a certain held of a series 
of crops in the same order for a given number of years. 
If on a certain field a farmer grows corn one year^ 
barlev the second year, clover the third vear, and thus 
continues to grow^ these crops in this order year after 
year, he rotates these crops. Rotation of crops increases 
crop yiekls, controls weeds, insects and other plant 
enemies, equalizes the removal of raw plant food, and 
helps to maintain a good physical condition of the 
soil. 

Botation of Crops Increases the Yield. — All experi- 
mentation work shows that the crop yields are better 
when crops are rotated than wdien the same, or some- 
what similar, crops are grown on the same fields year 
after year. 

There are two reasons for the increased crop yields, 
due to crop rotation : pests, weeds, and diseases are 
held in check, and there is a balance of the removal of 
plant food because different crops use different amounts. 

What is a Good Rotation? — A good rotation of 
crops should contain: 

1. Shallow and deep rooted crops; 2. humus forming 
crops, as hay plants, and humus consuming crops, as the 



76 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGEICULTUEE 

grains; 3. cultivated and noncultivated crops; 4. 
legumes and non-legumes. When these four factors are 
found in rotation it is a good rotation. 

Examples of rotation. — We commonly speak of a 
three, four, or five year rotation. Below are given a 
few examples of rotations. 

Three Year Rotations Four Year Rotations 

Corn, wheat, clover corn, wheat, clover, timothy- 

corn, oats, clover corn, peas, barley, clover 

cotton, soy beans, clover corn, corn, wheat, clover 

potatoes, rye, clover corn, oats, hay, pasture 

Make outlines of other rotations as diagramed above. 

68. Nurse Crops. — Commonly clover, or clover and 
timothy seed are sown with some small grain seed, such 
as wheat, barley, rye or oats. These grain crops are 
then called nui^se crops, and we say that clover was 
seeded with the grain. This saves a year and in favor- 
able seasons both the nurse crop and the seeded crop 
give good results. When using the small grains for 
nurse crops the amount sown is generally less than 
when no grass crop, such as clover, or clover and 
timothy, is sown with it. 

69. Plan of a Farm Showing the Rotations. — If 
a farmer has five fields of about equal size, his farm will 
be adapted either to a four year rotation with alfalfa 
on the fifth field, or to a regular five year rotation. 
The plan below shows a four year rotation with alfalfa. 
The four year rotation is corn, corn, oats and clover, 
rotated on four fields, and the alfalfa is on a separate 
field. 



LEGUMmOUS CROPS 



77 



Field A 


Field C 


Field D 


20 acres 




20 acres 


corn 


20 acres 
oats 


clover 






Field B 


• 


Field F 


20 acres 




20 acres 


corn 




alfalfa 



Plan of a Farm Showing the Rotation 

In certain states corn is grown in rotation for two 
consecutive years. In others the small grains are. 
The rotations which are employed in various regions 
and under various circumstances are almost without 
number. 

Make a plan of some farm and indicate the crops grown 
on each field for a series of years. Tabulate the rotation. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Give all the reasons you can why legumes are useful to 
the farmer. 

2. Have you ever observed that crops following legumes 
are better than similar crops following non-leguminous 
plants ? 

3. After you have gathered all the beans from a bean plant 
in your garden, carefully dig up some of the plants and look 
for nodules. Describe them. 

4. Under what conditions would you plow under the whole 
clover crop and under what conditions stubble? 

5. Why is it bad practice to raise tobacco on the same piece 
of land year after year ? 



h" 



78 AX IIS^TRODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTURE 

6. What system of rotation do farmers in your community 
use? Make an outline of them. Why are these good or bad 
rotations ? 

7. What principles should guide in the sequence of crops in 
a rotation? 

8. Make a plan of some farm and indicate the rotation 
followed on each field. 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Nitrogen Gathering Plaiits, Yearbook, Sep., 530, 5 cents. 
Inoculation of Seed, B. P. I. Cir. 71, 5 cents. 
Nitrogen — Fixing Bacteria, B. P. I. Bulletin 72, 5 cents. 
Methods of Legume Inoculation, B. P. I. Cir. 63, 5 cents. 
Planning Cropping Systems, B. P. I. Bui. 102, 5 cents. 
Cropping Systems for Stock Farms, 1907 Yearbook, Sep., 5 

cents. 
Methods of Cultivation and Crop Rotations, B. P. I. Bui. 187, 

15 cents. 
Rotation Systems and Insects, 1911 Yearbook, Sep., 5 cents. 
Rotations in the Corn Belt, Yearbook, Sep., 572, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

I 
Jteplanning a Farm for Profit, F. B. 370. 

Legumes for Green Manuring, F. B. 278. 



CHAPTEK IX 

CORN 

Corn is the most important grain crop grown in 
the United States. We raise about 70^/c of all the 
corn grown in the world and our annual production has 
been for many years between two and three billion 
bushels, while the average yield per acre has been ap- 
proximately 26 bushels. 

70. History and Uses. — Corn originated in 
America. It was the principal source of vegetable food 
of the Indians, and all the early explorers of America 
found the Indians growing corn. The Indians grew 
corn in practically the same way as it is grown to-day. 
To-day our leading cereal crop is corn. It is rightly 
termed, " The King of Crops." It is the principal 
grain food for all our farm animals, and as com meal^ 
hominv, canned corn, and sweet corn, it forms an im- 
portant source of man's food. Corn is also extensively 
used in the manufacture of glucose^ cornstarch, and 
liquors. When thus used, important by-products are 
obtained, such as feeds for cattle and other farm 
animals. 

71. The Corn Belt States. — Ohio, Indiana, Illi- 
nois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska are com- 

monlv called the " corn belt " states, as these sever^. 

79 



80 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

states raise about as much corn as all the other states 
combined. These states have a soil and climate well 
adapted to the raising of corn/ 

72. Classes or Types of Corn. — There are four 
common types of corn; these are dent corn, flint corn, 
sweet corn, and pop corn. Each of these classes is in 
turn made up of many varieties or breeds. There are 





CORN 


ACREAGE. 




EACH DOT REPRESENTS 


1 ^fif j ~~ 


._^_^ IHARveSTED FOR CRAINl 




10.000 ACRES #w^ 


£. * / 






/7_ 


X^ iy 


/ 


1^ 


1 A / \ 




I A 


-^K^ 


j^^^fTv^ 




— 1 L 


\ ' \ 1 




-Jl^k 


[J^^^v 


^^^ 


^■¥-^' .mm£ 


wH^KBKK^' ■':■-■ j^ 


^"*\- T 


/ ■ ■ ' 


^^m^ 




^^ 


/ ~^" 


l^mg 


^v^ 




•^^^^'W^'i-^ 


t 


\ 7^^ 




Xr-v— -J . 


;^:i|W% 




U5i<:;— ^ 






■■''$pr^ 


SA(^ 


\\ 






M 




J^ 



Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture 



about three hundred known varieties of dent corn. 
Each state has its own varieties especially adapted to 
growing within that state. Names of varieties best 
adapted to a state are issued by the state agricultural 
colleges. 

Dent Corn. — Dent corn is the commonest corn 
grown. It is named from the fact that when a kernel 

1 The U. S. Agricultural Yearbook gives the amount of corn 
grown in each state each year. 



COKX 81 

of this corn ripens, a dent, or crease, is formed on the 
crown of the kernel. The ears of dent corn have a 
cylindrical shape, tapering slightly at the tip. They 
vary in len2:th and in circumference. An ear eight 
inches long with a circumference of 6 to 7 inches, is 
an average ear and usually weighs about nine ounces. 
Most of the dent corn grown is either yellow or white. 

Make a study of different varieties of dent corn noting the 
length, the circumference, number of rows, and of kernels per 
row. 

Flint Corn. — The kernels of flint corn have no dent 
but are smooth and hard. They differ in shape from 
those of dent corn in that thev are more rounded. The 
ears are generally longer and narrower. Ears of flint 
corn have fewer rows than ears of dent corn; eight rows 
are most commonly found. Flint corn matures earlier 
than does dent corn, and therefore, is grown more com- 
monly in the northern states, especially in New Eng- 
land. 

If flint corn is grown in your locality make a study of a 
few of the conuuon varieties in the way outlined for dent 
corn. 

Siveet Corn. — The type or class of corn known as 
sweet corn is grown entirely for human consumption. 
It differs from flint and from dent corn in that a large 
part of the starch turns to sugar. This gives to it a 
sweeter taste and a more translucent appearance than 
the other varieties of corn. The kernels of sweet corn 
are shaped somewhat similarly to those of dent corn 
but when mature, thev are very much wrinkled. The 



82 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 

ears are generally smaller and narrower than those 
of dent corn. 

Pop Corn. — Ears of pop corn, and the kernels also, 
are always much smaller than those found on any of 
the other three types of com. Pop corn kernels are 
extremely hard. Because of this extreme hardness, 
which means that the materials composing it are very 
closely packed together, this corn pops or explodes when 
sufficiently heated. When it pops the starchy sub- 
stance changes into a white fluffy mass which encloses 
the germ and the hull. There are two common kinds 
of pop corn, rice and pearl. The rice pop corn has 
sharp pointed kernels, while the kernels of pearl pop 
corn are round and smooth. 

73. The Corn Plant. — The corn plant varies 
greatly in size according to the variety of corn and ac- 
cording to the climate in which it is grown. Some 
varieties of sweet corn never grow more than three feet 
tall and in the south many varieties of dent corn grow 
twelve to sixteen feet tall. The number of leaves on 
the corn plant varies according to the height and 
variety of the plant. The root system of the corn plant 
is very large, and after corn plants are about half -grown 
the roots of field corn occupy all the space between the 
rows. 

Flowers. — The corn plant has two kinds of flowers. 
One kind occurs in the tassels and forms only pollen. 
The other kind is found on the young ears. The flower 
on the young ears has no stamen, but it has an ovary. 
The extension of the ovary, called the silk, extends 
beyond the husk of the young ear, to receive the pollen. 



cok:n^ 



83 



Corn is cross pollinated (page 9) and the wind car- 
ries the pollen from one plant to another. When dif- 
ferent varieties of corn are planted too closely together, 
pollen from these different plants causes considerable 
crossing and this accounts for white kernels on yellow 
corn, and for sweet corn kernels on dent corn, and the 
like. 

74. Seed Corn. — All good varieties of corn have 
been developed by careful selection until their character- 
istics are uniformly transmitted. Unless a special ef- 
fort is made each year to select for seed only the best 
and truest ears, the quality of the corn will deteriorate. 
The corn selected should always be a good example of 
the variety to be grown. A corn score card shows the 
important points of an ear of corn, and is used in judg- 
ing corn. 











VARIOUS SHAPES OP KERNELS. — Courtesy of the University of Wisconsin 



To judge kernels remove two kernels from each ear 
two-thirds of the way from butt to tip. Place each pair 
near the ear from which they were taken and compare 



84 AIST INTEODUCTIO^^ TO AGKICULTURE 

with the ideaL The top row here shown illustrates the 
best while those in the bottom row are too short and 
thick for dent corn. The long wedge shaped kernels 
shown at the right of the top row and the two pairs in 
the center of the row are desirable. 

•75. Selection of Seed Corn. — Seed corn should be 
selected in the field directly from the growing stalk. 
This should be done before the general harvesting and 




TWO UNDESIRABLE EARS 



before a frost. When the husks and lower leaves have 
turned yellow and the kernels of corn are glazed, the 
corn is mature enough to be gathered. The ears should 
be typical of the variety in size, shape, color, and in- 
dentation. The ears should be well filled out, the 
kernels uniform. The plant from which the ears are 
selected should be strong and leafy; it should have 
matured a little earlier than the main crop; and it 



CORX 



85 



should bear the ear at a height convenient for husking, 
that is, three or four feet from the ground. 

At the time of maturity seed corn contains from 
20 to 35 per cent, of water, and it is essential that such 
corn be removed on the day it is gathered to a suitable 
place where it can quickly dry out or cure. 




TWO EARS OF CORX. SHOWING DESIRABLE QUALITIES FOR SELECTION 



76. Curing Seed Corn. — The selected seed corn 
should be hung to dry at once on corn hangers, corn 
trees or stringers. It is essential that no ear touches 
another so that there will be a free circulation of air 
around each ear of corn. The room where the corn 
is hung should have a free circulation of air, should 
have protection against freezing temperatures, and 
should be dry. Artificial heat, although not essential, 
aids in the rapid curing of corn. When the corn is 
properly dry it can be hung in any dry room and freez- 
ing temperature will not affect it. 



86 AN INTEODUCTIOJSF TO AGKICULTURE 

77. Testing Seed Corn. — February and March are 
good months in which to test the selected seed corn 
to find out its germination power. There are two 
common methods of testing corn, the sawdust germina- 
tion box, and the rag dolL Either method will show 
the comparative germination power of the com. Corn 
which is dead or weak when tested in the sawdust box 
will show up in practically the same way when tested 
with a rag doll tester and in the same way when planted 
in the field. Either method of testing enables one to 
pick out the strongest germinating ears^ even though 
the conditions of germination are different from what 
they are when the corn is planted in the field. 

Saiudust Box Method. — The standard box in which 
to test 100 ears at one time, is 30 inches square and four 
inches deep. In the bottom of the box is placed a layer 
of clean sawdust which has been thoroughly soaked in 
hot water. This is packed firmly and covered with a 
piece of wet, closely woven muslin, which has been 
marked off into 100 two and one-half inch squares, leav- 
ing a 214 inch border around the outside. The corners 
are tacked so as to hold the cloth in place. The squares 
are numbered one to one hundred, and the ears are also 
numbered and so arranged that the kernels from ear one 
are put into square one and so on. Six kernels, two 
from near the top, two from the middle, and two from 
the butt of the ear are removed and placed in the 
squares, with the germ sides up and the tips all point- 
ing in one direction. The kernels are then covered with 
another piece of wet muslin which is also fastened at 
the four corners. Over this is placed another piece of 



COKN 87 

muslin large enough to allow 20 inches of material 
to project out on all four sides. Into this cloth is 
poured another layer of moistened sawdust, and this 
is also packed. The four extending sides are then 
thrown over the sawdust and the box is covered with a 
loose cover and inclined slightly so that the tips of the 
corn point downward. The box is then left at ordinary 
temperature. After seven days the top cloth with the 
sawdust is removed, and also the cloth directly over 
the seeds, and the test is then read. A strong germinat- 
ing kernel will have three or four secondary roots and 
a large primary root. In a weak kernel the growth of 
roots will be much less, and in a very weak or dead 
kernel there will be little or no growth. Only the ears 
from which all six kernels sprout well should be re- 
tained for seed. 

The Rag Doll Tester. — A piece of well washed, 
tightly woven muslin, 10" wide and 28" long, is large 
enough to test ten ears of corn by the rag doll method. 
Often twenty ears are tested in one doll, in which case 
the cloth should be about 40" long. With a soft wax 
crayon 21/^" squares are ruled off on muslin, leaving 
a 2%" margin on each side and a 7" or 8" margin at 
each end. The squares are numbered, and the cloth 
is then moistened, and spread out on a clean surface. 
Six kernels are placed in each square, germ side up and 
tips all pointing in one direction sidewise. The ears 
are marked so as to correspond in numbers to the 
squares. The cloth is then loosely rolled up without 
displacing the kernels. The ends are fastened with a 
rubber band or with a string, and the dolls with tips of 



88 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTUEE 

corn pointing down are put into a bucket of warm 
water over night. The next morning the water is 
poured out of the bucket and the bands or strings are 
removed, and the dolls are replaced in the bucket again 
with the tips pointing downward. The bucket is then 
covered with a cloth and kept at ordinary room tempera- 
ture. Every two days the dolls should be soaked in 




THE RAG DOLL TESTER 

May be made at home for ten cents. This tester is now exclusively used 
at the Experiment Station in preference to all others. — Bulletin 138, Iowa 
State Experiment Station. 

water for five minutes, so as to keep them moist. After 
seven days they may be removed and unrolled, and the 
test read as it was in the sawdust box method. When 
the cloths are boiled they are readv to be used again. 
One set of cloths may be used any number of times and 
should last several vears. 

•78. Planting Corn. — Corn is generally planted 1'' 
to 2'' deep. There are three common ways in which 



COKX 80 

corn is planted, in hills, in drills, and listed. When 
corn is planted in hills the method is commonly called 
'^ check rowing.'' 

Planting Com in Hills. — Corn in hills can be culti- 
vated in two directions and, on land that is compara- 
tively level, check rowing corn is the most common 
method of planting. Usually three or four kernels are 
planted in a hill. The most common distance between 
the hills is 3' 8"; but much corn is planted with a dis- 
tance of 3' 6'' between the rows and hills. The soil 
and the climate determine largely both the rate of 
planting and the distance between the rows. When 
corn is planted in hills 3' 6'' each way there are 3556 
hills to the acre ; and if each hill produced two ten- 
ounce ears the yield would be approximately 60 bu. per 
acre. 

Drilling Corn. — When the land is uneven, and 
where the land is free of weeds, corn is usually drilled. 
The common distance between the rows is 3' 6'' to 4'. 
The common distance between the plants in the drill 
or row is 12 to 14 inches. If the rows are 3' 8''' apart 
and the corn is planted 14 inches apart in the row, 
the rate of planting is equivalent to checking 3 kernels 
at 3' 8''. Silage corn on rich land is generally planted 
in drills 3' 6'' apart, and the plants 6 to 8 inches in the 
drill. This will produce a very much larger yield of 
silage corn. 

Listing Corn. — In the southwestern states, where the 
rainfall is likely to be deficient, the com is listed. A 
special planter is used which drops the seeds in the 
bottom of a furrow 6 to 12 inches deep. When such 



90 AN i:n^tkoduction to agkiculture 

corn is cultivated, the soil between the rows is worked 
into furrows. This process increases the depth of the 
roots and thus the corn is better able to stand the 
drought. 

79. Cultivation. — Corn is cultivated to keep the 
soil in a condition favorable for the rapid and con- 
tinuous growth of the plant. In order to do this the 
weeds, which would otherwise take much moisture and 
raw plant food which should go to the growing corn, 
must be kept down, and the soil must be kept loose 
so that it can absorb much of the rainfall. Finally, 
a dust mulch must be maintained, until the corn stops 
growing. All experimentation shows that shallow culti- 
vation, two or three inches deep, gives the best results. 
Corn should be cultivated frequently enough to keep 
the soil in the best condition for the growth of the crop. 
In some localities three or four cultivations are suffi- 
cient ; in others, -Q-ve or six are required. When there 
are no weeds, and where a good dust mulch has been 
established, no further cultivation is required until 
these conditions have been changed. When corn has 
grown too tall to be cultivated with a double cultivator, 
and the soil needs cultivation, a one horse cultivator 
is often used to maintain the proper soil condition. 
Hilling up the corn at the last cultivation is a bad 
practice, as this method destroys many roots, exposes 
others, causes more rapid evaporation, and leaves the 
soil in a bad condition which makes subsequent opera- 
tions more difficult. 

80. Harvesting Corn. — In the corn belt states 
much corn is husked by hand from the stalks and the 



COEN 91 

cattle are then turned in to clean up the field. Much 
corn is also cut with a binder, corn harvester, and by 
hand. Properly cured corn stalks give considerable 
feed and may take the place of grass hay. For silage, 
the corn is alwavs cut with a binder and the bundles 
of corn are then easily hauled to the silo filler where 
the entire plants — stalks, leaves, and ears — are cut 
up into small pieces called silage. In the southern 
states corn is still commonly topped, and stripped. The 
tops and leaves are tied into bundles and used for feed. 
Later the ears are husked from the remaining parts of 

the stalks. 

8i. Corn Pests and Diseases.— The corn plant is 
attacked by many insect pests, such as cut worms, root 
lice, wireworms, earworms, and white grubs. Rotation 
of crops and occasional fall plowing is the only practi- 
cal way of reducing the losses caused by these pests. 
The only common disease of the corn plant is corn smut. 
Corn smut, when mature, is easily recognized by masses 
of black powdery spores occurring on almost any part 
of the plant above the ground. Generally, however, 
the ears and tassels are the parts where these masses 
of spores most often occur. Since these spores live m 
the soil over the winter, rotation of crops, and the 
burning of the spore masses are the only practical ways 
of reducing the disease. 

82. The Silo and Silage.— A silo is an air tight 
structure used for the preservation of green coarse 
fodder in a succulent or juicy condition. The green 
fodder in the silo is called silage. To-day every 
progressive dairy and stock farmer has a silo. Silage 



92 AN IlsrTRODUCTIO:^r TO AGEICULTUEE 

makes excellent feed for cattle and for sheep. Some 
of the most important advantages of a silo are: 

Economy in the storage of feed. 

Small loss of a crop in harvesting. 

Reduces waste in feeding. 

Corn silage is a much better feed than dry corn fodder. 

Almost anv green crop can be made into silage, but 
corn is the universal crop. It is estimated that the 
corn, which would make a 50 bu. crop per acre, will 
yield from 8 to 10 tons of corn silage. Thirty to forty 
pounds are commonly fed to cattle per day. 

Form of Silos. — All recent silos are round and con- 
siderably greater in height than in diameter. Silos 12 
X 28 or 14 X 32 are very common. The former holds 
about 60 tons of corn silage, the latter about 100 tons. 
The inner surface of the walls of all silos should be 
air tight, perpendicular and smooth, so that the silage 
can be firmly packed. Because of the great pressure 
of the silage the walls must be rigid and very strong. 
Brick, hollow tile, cement block, concrete, and wooden 
stave silos are very common in all parts of the coun- 
trv. 

Principle of the Silo. — Bacteria and air readily 
cause all green succulent feed to spoil unless it is quickly 
dried. Bacteria pass into the silo with the corn, and 
for a short time they begin to grow, multiply rapidly, 
and act upon the corn producing fermentation. If 
there were an ample supply of air, these bacteria would 
finallv cause the corn to decav, but since a silo is air- 
tight, the air within it when it is filled with silage 



1 

i 



COEN^ 



93 



is very little and is soon used np and replaced by carbon 
dioxide. This lack of air checks the action of the 
bacteria, and the silage is then preserved much 
as is canned fruit in a tightly sealed can or glass jar. 
To be sure^ the silo is open on the top, but because the 
corn is so well packed, practically no air moves down 




EXCELLENT TYPE OF BARN AND SILO. — Courtesv of International Harvester 

Companu 

through the top layer. If this top layer is not quickly 
used it, of course, spoils. When a farmer starts to use 
the silage a layer of about one to two inches deep per 
day should be removed to keep the silage from spoiling. 
83. Market Grades of Com. — The surplus corn, 
which farmers do not need, is shelled and sold to grain 
dealers, who in turn generally ship it to the large 
markets. When a car load of corn reaches the large 
market, it is examined, sampled, and graded by grain 



94 AN IISrTKODUCTION TO AGRICULTUKE 

inspectors. The large grain dealers sell graded corn 
only. There are six well established grades of corn 
and the price of the corn varies according to the grade. 
This process of grading is a great advantage to both 
buyer and seller, as it establishes clearly the quality of 
the corn; and a purchaser generally gets the kind of 
corn he buys. The sales of corn, giving the amount 
and grade are published daily in newspapers. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Is the state in which you live included in the corn belt ? 

2. How does the average yield of corn of your state com- 
pare with the average yield for the United States? Con- 
sult Yearbook of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

3. How many acres are devoted to corn in your county? 
What is the value of the corn raised? Consult Yearbook. 

4. If by better selection of seed corn and by testing the 
seed corn the yield of corn could be increased 5%, what would 
be the value of the increase in your county? 

5. What varieties of corn are raised in your community? 
Describe their characteristics. 

6. Where and why would you plant corn in hills and in 
drills ? 

7. If corn sells for $18.00 per ton in the fall and shrinks 
10% in weight over winter, for how much must a ton be sold 
in the spring to make up for the loss in weight? 

8. If corn were checked 3'6" X 3'6" and the average hill 
produced two 12 oz. ears, calculate the yield of corn per acre. 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Commercial Grading of Corn, B. P. I. Bui. 41, 10 cents. 
Directions for Cooperative Corn Breeders, B. P. I. Cir., 5 

cents. 
Shrinkage of Corn in Storage, B. P. I. Cir. 81, 5 cents. 



COEN 95 

* Boy's Corn Clubs, B. P. I. Circulars, 5 cents. 
Lessons on Corn from Rural Schools, Dept. Bui. 653, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

School Lessons on Corn, F. B. 617, F. B. 409. 

How to Grow an Acre of Corn, F. B. 537. 

Harvesting and Storing Corn, F. B. 313. 

Seed Corn, F. B. 415, F. B. 229. 

Com Cultivation, F. B. 414. 

Pop Corn, F. B. 553, F. B. 554. 

Making and Feeding Corn Silage, F. B. 556, F. B. 578. 

More Profitable Corn Planting Methods, F. B. 400. 

Corn Ear Worm, F. B. 872. 

Home Made Silos, F. B. 855. 

The Corn Earworm, F. B. 872. 

The Rag-Doll Seed Tester, F. B. 948. 



CHAPTER X 

WHEAT, BARLEY, RYE, AND OATS 

The four cereals, wheat, rye, barley, and oats have 
many things in common. All belong to the grass family 
of plants, and, like the majority of grasses, all have 
hollow stems except at the joints. The flowers, too, 




Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture 



of all these four grains are very much alike, but they 
all differ very much from those of corn. 

84. The Flowers and the Head. — Wheat has from 
three to five flowers placed in groups one above another 

96 



WHEAT, BAKLEY, EYE, AND OATS 97 

and slightly overlapping on two sides of the stem. 
Each of these groups usually bears three kernels of 
wheat. 

Barlev is of two kinds, the six-rowed and the two- 
rowed. The six-rowed barley has six rows of distinct 
flowers, three on each side of the stem. Each of these 
flowers produces a kernel of grain. In two-rowed 




Yecurhook of the Department of Agriculture 



barley only one flower on each side of the stem develops 
into a kernel of grain. 

Rye has four rows of flowers, two on each side 
of the stem, each of which produces a kernel. 

All three of these grains, wheat, barley, and rye 
form their grains in a compact, elongated mass called 
a head. Oats differs from them. Oats forms its flow- 
ers, and consequently its grain, in clusters at the ends 



98 AN INTKODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTURE 

of little stems. These clusters of flowers resemble the 
flowers of wheat, and each cluster generally forms two 
kernels of grain. 

85. Varieties of Grains. — All our State Agricul- 
tural Colleges have been instrumental in developing 
varieties of wheat, barley, rye, and oats best adapted 
to their respective states. Any farmer may find out 
from his state agricultural college, or his county agri- 
cultural agent what varieties of these grains are best 
adapted to his soil and where the best seed can be ob- 
tained. 

The teacher should get the pupils to bring in as many 
kinds of heads of grains as are grown in the neighborhood 
and the pupils should learn to identify the different kinds. 

86. Our Wheat Crop. — Each year there are har- 
vested in the United States about 700,000,000 bushels 
of wheat which is about 18% of the world's crop. For 
many years the average yield of wheat in the United 
States has been about 15 bushels per acre. 

87. Use of Wheat. — Wheat is the principal cereal 
grain grown for man's food, and has been thus used 
for food since prehistoric times. The larger per cent 
of all the wheat grown is used for the production of 
flour and when so used it forms important by-products 
such as bran, shorts, and middlings. Flour is made 
from the starchy mass of the wheat kernel. The outer 
coats of the grain together with a little of the under- 
lying layer forms the bran. When this bran is very 
finely broken, it forms shorts. Wheat middlings are 
much like shorts except that they contain more of the 



WHEAT, BARLEY, RYE, A^^D OATS 99 

white starch. Those three by-products form excellent 
food for nearly all our animals. They contain more 
protein and ash than flour does but less carbohydrates. 

88. Kinds of Wheat. — There are two common 
classes of wheat called the winter and spring wheat. 
Winter wheat is planted late in the summer and is ex- 
tensively grown in Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, 
Missouri, Indiana, Ohio and neighboring states. 
Spring wheat is grown farther north, and the Dakotas, 
Minnesota, and Montana lead in the production of 
spring wheat. 

89. The Wheat Plant. — The roots of the wheat 
plant grow out sidewise until they meet those of 
adjacent plants; then they begin to grow down almost 
vertically. These roots are very numerous and form 
a fibrous mass. When the plant begins to grow, the 
nodes or joints on the stems are very close together 
and each node forms leaves, buds, and roots. At first 
only leaves appear above the ground, which always gives 
the young plants a leafy appearance. The buds develop 
into short stems which in turn branch, making the 
number of leaves and branches numerous. This 
process is called stooling or tillering. 

Winter wheat passes the winter and early spring 
in this leafy condition and, finally as the season 
progresses, all the short stems begin to shoot up from 
the ground quickly. Spring wheat stools and then sud- 
denly shoots up just as winter wheat does. 

90. Growing the Crop. — Wheat prefers a cooler 
climate than corn, and a heavier soil. The best yields 
are obtained during cool and moderately moist springs 



100 AN IKTEODUCTIO:^r TO AGRICULTUKE 

which are followed by warm, sunny weather during the 
ripening period. All experimental records show that 
drilling the seed into the soil gives better yields than 
does broad casting the seed. The reasons for this are 
that the seeds are more uniformly distributed, better 
covered, and planted at a more uniform depth. 

The seed used should be carefully graded and only 
the largest and heaviest grade selected. When this 
grading or selecting of seed is not done, both the quality 
and the yield are decreased. This process of grading 
is generally done with a fanning mill, which not only 
removes the small, light, and shriveled grains, but also 
many weed seeds and broken kernels. Wheat makes 
a good nurse crop and it therefore generally precedes 
the grass crop in the rotation. 

91. Harvesting the Crop. — Wheat is generally 
harvested with a self-binder when the kernels are 
beginning to harden and when the straw has begun to 
turn yellow. The self-binder drops the cut wheat in 
bundles called sheaves. These are then piled into 
shocks, made by placing ten or twelve bundles in a 
double row, the heads up, and the bundles leaning 
against each other. Generally two bundles are placed 
on top of each shock to act as a cap or covering. In 
the shock the ripening continues and the curing of 
the grain is accomplished. When the crop is dry 
enough, it should be made into stacks before it is 
threshed. If allowed to remain in the shock all this 
time, the quality deteriorates. Sweating in the stack 
prevents sweating after the wheat is threshed and 
actually improves its quality. In the West on the large 



WHEAT, BAKLEY, EYE, AND OATS 101 

wheat ranches, the wheat crop is often allowed to ripen 
and cure before it is harvested. The crop is then 
gathered with a header, or combined harvester and 
thresher. The latter cuts and threshes the grain in one 

operation. 

92. Wheat Diseases and Pests.— The common 
wheat diseases are rust, and smut; and the most 
abundant pests are the Hessian fly and the chinch bug. 
Wheat i?'w5/5.— Wheat rust appears as rusty and 
black streaks on the stems and leaves of the wheat plant. 
These streaks are masses of spores sent to the surface 
from the fungus which lives within the plant. The dis- 
ease causes small, shrivelled, and light kernels of wheat, 
which greatly reduce the yield. The disease is most 
abundant in moist, warm weather. The only practical 
way of combating rust is by means of crop rotations and 
by the production of strong, vigorous plants. 

Wheat Smut. — There are two different kinds of smut 
diseases affecting the wheat plant, the '' stinking smut " 
and the loose smut. 

Stinking Smut.— The fungus of the '^stinking 
smut " lives within the tissues of the plant and forms 
a black mass within the grain. This black mass is a 
mass of smut spores. As the spores are most generally 
carried on the seed, this disease can be controlled by 
treating the seeds with formaldehyde before planting. 
The formaldehyde solution is made by adding one pint 
of commercial formaldehyde to 30 gallons of water. 
The seeds should be thoroughly moistened with this 
solution, made into a pile, and covered with sacks for 
two hours. After this the seeds should be spread out 



102 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

and may be planted immediately or after they are dried 
out. There are now on the market dipping machines 
for treating seeds for smut. 

The Loose Smut. — The fungus, known as loose smut 
appears when mature as a mass of black spores in the 
grain. The spores are generally carried by the wind 
and infect the head of the wheat when in the flowering 
condition. Since the disease is transmitted within the 
kernel it is difficult to control. A hot water treatment 
is sometimes used but this is difficult to handle cor- 
rectly. 

The Hessian Fly. — The Hessian fly is a small, black, 
two-winged fly much like a mosquito. It raises two 
broods in a year and the spring brood does a great deal 
of damage to the young wheat plants by eating the 
tissues of the plant. In the fall the flies emerge from 
the stubble of the previous wheat crop, and deposit 
their eggs on the upper leaves of the young, fall grown, 
wheat crop. The young which hatch from these eggs 
feed upon the wheat plant and work their way down 
between the leaf sheaves, to the base of the plant. 
Here they spend the winter in a resting condition. In 
the spring they emerge as adult flies and in their turn 
deposit eggs on the young wheat plants. The young 
from these eggs feed upon the young plants, and there- 
by not only greatly reduce the vitality of the plants but 
often kill many of them. Then the young or larvae 
spend the summer in the stubble. Prompt plowing of 
the stubble helps to control these pests. If a strip of 
wheat is planted three or four weeks before the main 
crop, the adult flies generally deposit their eggs on 



WHEAT, BARLEY, RYE, AIS^D OATS 103 

these first plants, and if this first planting is plowed 
under, late in the fall, the main crop may be protected. 

93. Barley. — It has been estimated that fully one- 
half of the annual barley crop was formerly used for 
brewing and malting. Barley is also used extensively 
for the feeding of cattle, hogs and sheep, and when so 
used it is generally ground. A small amount of barley 
is used in the preparation of breakfast foods, and some 
is also used as pearled barley which is mostly utilized in 
soup, and a little is made into flour. Wisconsin, Min- 
nesota, the Dakotas, Montana and California are our 
leading barley producing states. 

94. The Plant and Cultural Methods. — Barley, 
when growing, is very similar in appearance to wheat 
and rye but is generally not so tall. The leaves are a 
trifle wider than those of wheat and rve. Its habits 
of growth and cultural methods resemble those of wheat 
but barley requires a richer and slightly lighter soil 
than does wheat. 

95. Rye. — Considerable rye is grown for the manu- 
facture of rye flour which is used in making rye bread. 
Rye is also used for feeding farm animals and in this 
connection it may take the place of wheat. Some rye 
is used in the manufacture of liquors. Rye straw has 
a considerable number of commercial uses and sur- 
passes in value the straw of the other grains. There 
is but one type of rye, but there are spring and winter 
varieties, the latter being most commonly grown. 

96. The Plant and Cultural Methods. — In a gen- 
eral way the habits of growth and the cultural methods 
of rye are similar to those of wheat, but rye often grows 



104 AN INTKODUCTIO:^^ TO AGEICULTUKE 

a little taller. Our north central states lead in the 
production of rve. 

Rve is much hardier than the other cereals, and 
profitable crops may be produced on soils too poor for 
the profitable growing of the other grains. It is also 
best adapted to light soils. Because of these facts, rye 
is sometimes called the ^' grain of poverty." It is com- 



EACH DOT REPRESENTS 
200.000 BUSHELS 




Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture 



monly grown as a green manure crop. Rye is often 
sown between the corn rows^ and also between the rows 
of all other crops, during the latter part of August or 
early September. 

97. Oats. — Oatmeal or rolled oats when properly 
cooked is one of the cheapest and best of the cereal 



WHEAT, BAKLEY, EYE, AXD OATS 105 



grains for man's food. Oats, however, find their great- 
est use as a feed for horses. Ground or crushed oats 
make a splendid grain for all farm animals. Oats are 
easily distinguished from the other grains because their 
grain is borne not in a compact head, but is loosely 
spread out. Each year we harvest about 1,000,000,000 
bushels of oats and the average yield is about 30 bushels 
per acre. 

98. Types of Oats. 
— There are two types 
of oats, one called 
spreading oats, and the 
other side oats. The 
side oats differ from 
the spreading, in that 
all the branches hang 
on one side of the main 
stem. There are both 
winter and spring va- 
rieties, as in wheat. 
The winter varieties 
are sov^m in the fall 
but are grown almost 
wholly in the South. 
The spring varieties 
are planted in the 
spring and are com- 




Spreading Head Side Oats 

TYPES OF OATS 

monly grown in the Courtesy of lowa State Department of 
-. I Public Instruction 

NoYih. Some 



varie- 



ties of oats are black, some white, others red, and still 
others s^ray. 



106 A^^ IXTRODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTURE 

The six leading oat producing states are : — Iowa, 
Illinois, Minnesota, Xorth Dakota, ^N^ebraska, and 
Wisconsin. These six states produce about 50% of the 
oat crop of the United States. 

99. The Plant and Cultural Methods. — Oats 
thrive best in a cool, moist climate on the heavier types 
of soil. Like wheat, oats are commonlv used as a 
nurse crop in a rotation. Where the soil is very rich, 
oats are apt to grow too tall, and lodge. Its cultural 
methods resemble those of wheat. 

100. Enemies of Oats. — Oats are affected by a 
smut disease, as wheat is. The treatment for oat smut 
is identical with that for the stinking smut of wheat, 
ajid when the oat smut is so treated, the loss of the 
gTain is greatly reduced. It pays well to treat oats for 
smut. 

1 01. Seed Improvement. — The grains in a cluster 
of oats, as in wheat, vary greatly in size. Therefore 
the seed should be carefully graded by passing it 
through a fanning mill, and only the largest and 
heaviest kernels should be used for seed. 

102. Market Grades. — The market recognizes three 
common classes of oats ; white, red, and mixed. When 
oats is shipped to the large markets it is graded accord- 
ing to its quality into four grades and sold accordingly. 
Grade Xo. 1 representing the best quality brings the 
highest price. ^ 

1 See Grades of Grains issued by the Illinois State Grain In- 
spection Dept., Chicago, Illinois. 



WHEAT, BARLEY, RYE, AND OATS 107 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Why is there a difference in price between a bushel ol 
wheat, oats, barley and rye? 

2. How does the price of a bushel of corn compare with the 
price of a bushel of the other cereals? 

3. What is the weight of a bushel of each of the common 
cereals ? 

4. Mention the principal uses made of the common cereals. 

5. What would be gained in 60 days by feeding a horse 5 
lbs. of corn and 5 lbs. of oats per day over 10 lbs. of oats per 
day? Use market values. 

6. What was the latest estimated production of oats in 
your county and what was its value? (See census report.) 

7. If the yield of oats could have been increased 5% by 
treating the seed for smut, what would the value of the in- 
crease amount to in your county? 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Spring Wheat in Great Plains Area, Bui. 214, 10 cents. 
Experiments with Wheat, Oats, and Barley in So. Dak., BuL 

39, 10 cents. 
Handling Wheat from Field to Mill, B. P. I. Cir. 68, 5 cents. 
Swedish Select Oats, B. P. I. Bui. 182, 10 cents. 
Barley Culture in North, B. P. I. Cir. 5, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Winter Wheat in Eastern U. S., F. B. 596, F. B. 616. 
Growing Hard Spring Wheat, F. B. 678, F. B. 680. 
Barley, F. B. 443, F. B. 427, F. B. 518. 
Oats, F. B. 420, F. B. 424, F. B. 395. 
Winter Oats for the South, F. B. 436. 
Rye, F. B. 756, Insect Enemies of Wheat, F. B. 132. 
Smuts of Grains, F. B. 507. 
Durum Wheat, F. B. 534. 

Hoiu to Detect Outbreaks of Insects and Save the Grain 
Crops, F. B. 835. 



CHAPTEE XI 

FORAGE CROPS 

103. Hay and Grass Crop. — If a value were given 
to the pasture crop, it would greatly exceed the value 
of the haj crop, and the value of these two crops to- 
gether, would then exceed that of corn. These crops 
also have an indirect value to the farmer, for when 
hay and pasture lands are plowed, there is added a 
great deal of organic matter to the soil. For many 
years there has been harvested on our farms between 
80 and 90 million tons of hay. 

There are many different varieties of grasses grown 
for hay in the United States, but the principal ones are 
timothy, and red top. 

104. Timothy. — In value, timothy exceeds all other 
grasses grown for hay in the United States. Because of 
its freedom from dust, it is especially well adapted to 
the needs of horses. Timothy is easily distinguished 
from the other grasses because of its cylindrical head, 3 
to 6 inches long. It is a perennial, and propagates by 
means of small, pointed, and solid bulbs, which are 
just below the surface of the soil, as are the bulbs of 
dahlia plants. 

Remove some timothy roots and note the cluster of bulbs. 

Timothy is a moderately coarse grass, growing from 
two to four feet high. It produces few leaves, is easily 

108 



FORAGE CROPS 



109 



cured, and easily handled. Timothy and a mixture of 
timothy and clover, fit well into rotations because when 
plowed under, the plants readily decay and add much 
organic matter to the soil. 

When a mixture of timothy and clover is sown with 
a nurse crop, no crop of hay is harvested the same year 
as is the nurse crop. The second year, the crop of hay 
removed consists mostly of clover. The third year 
timothy will predominate and continue to do so. 



10THY 




Yearbook of Department of Agriculture 

105. Red Top. — Red top is our second best known 
grass grown for hay. It differs from timothy in many 
ways. It has a spreading flower cluster, and not a 
cylindrical head as timothy has ; it grows only 1 to 2% 
feet high ; it has slightly purplish flower clusters ; and 
it has underground stems which make it a sod forming 
plant much like June grass. Red top grows best on 



110 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 

deep rich soils. It thrives well on soils which are too 
wet and too acid for timothy. Like timothy it is a 
perennial. 

1 06. Legumes Grown for Hay. — The commonest 
legumes grown for forage purposes are medium and 
mammoth red clover, alsike clover, alfalfa, soy beans, 
and cow peas. 

107. Medium Red Clover. — Medium red clover is 
often called common red clover and is grown more 
extensively for hay than any of the other legumes. 
Ordinarily it is a biennial; that is, it lives only two 
years. The plant is covered with fine hairs which tend 
to make the hay dusty, and therefore, not well suited 
for horses. The hay, because it is rich in protein, is 
excellent feed for all growing stock and for cattle. The 
plant has a long tap root which makes it a deep feeder. 
It grows best on sweet, well drained, loam or clay loam 
soils. 

108. Mammoth Red Clover. — Mammoth red clover 
gets its name from the fact that it grows taller, and 
is coarser than medium red clover. The plant is also 
more hairy than that of medium red clover. Mammoth 
red clover is better adapted to poor soils than is medium 
red clover, but on poor soils the plant does not grow in as 
rank profusion, as it does on the, richer soils. For soil 
improvement, and especially for sandy soils, mammoth 
red clover is better than any other clover plant. 

109. Alsike Clover. — In some localities alsike clover 
is called Swedish clover. In general, its habits of 
growth resemble those of the red clovers. It differs 
from the red clovers, however, in that it is not as coarse 



FOKAGE CROPS 



111 



nor as tall, and has no silkv hairs on its stems and 
leaves. Because the plant is not covered with these 
hairs, alsike clover hay is not dusty and may safely be 
fed to horses. The flowers of alsike clover are pinkish 
in color with considerable mixture of white. The lower 
part of the stems has a slight tendency to spread before 
the plant has grown erect. 



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EACH DOT REPRESENTS 

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ALFALFA ACREAGE 


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Tearbook of Department of Agriculture 



Alsike clover not only grows well wherever the red 
clovers thrive, but it also grows successfully on soils too 
wet for the red clovers. This is the principal reason 
why it is so extensively used. 

no. Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is a long-lived perennial. It 
has a very long tap root which, on old plants, growing in 
suitable soils, often extends to a depth of 15 feet or 
more. From the top of the tap root, commonly called 



112 AN i:n"teoduction to agkicultuee 

the " crown/' arise the shoots of the plant which are 
generally from two to four feet high. As the plant 
grows older, the number of shoots or branches greatly 
increases. 

History of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is a very old plant, 
grown by the Persians and Greeks more than two thou- 
sand years ago. It was introduced into the New Eng- 
land states early in the seventeenth century but attempts 
to establish it there were unsuccessful. The Spaniards, 
however, introduced it into Mexico and South America. 
In 1854, alfalfa was brought from Chile to San Fran- 
cisco and from there it made its rapid spread through- 
out the West, and slowly worked its way eastward. 

Importance of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is gradually be- 
coming one of our most valuable forage plants because it 
exceeds all other forage crops in yield per acre, in feed- 
ing value, as a drought resistor, and as a soil enricher. 

In most sections of the United States two to four 
cuttings are obtained every year; and when alfalfa is 
once planted it usually may be allowed to grow four or 
five years without reseeding. Alfalfa is one of the most 
nutritious feeds for all classes of farm animals. In 
many sections of the country all classes of livestock are 
maintained during the winter on nothing but alfalfa. 

Groiving the Crop. — To grow alfalfa successfully the 
soil must be deep, fertile, well drained, sweet, free from 
weeds, and contain the proper soil bacteria. The lack of 
some one of these essential requirements is the cause of 
failure in attempting to grow alfalfa. In Chapter VIII 
we have spoken of the benefits of liming and of inocu- 
lating soils, and, throughout the eastern and southern 



/ 



FOE AGE CROPS M13 

parts of the United States it almost always pays well to 
both lime and inoculate before alfalfa is grown. 'lo Aa 

Harvesting the Crop. — Alfalfa should be" ctit when 
about one-tenth of the plants are in blossom, or when 
new shoots are beginning to appear ^on the crown of the 
plants. These new shoots grow more quickly after the 
older parts of the plant are removed. If the cutting of 
the older parts is delayed until these new shoots have 
grown tall enough to be cut with the mower, the ensuing 
crop will be greatly retarded. Hay caps not only pro- 
tect the hay from rains but they also improve the feed- 
ing value of the hay. 

111. Soy Beans. — The soy bean, often called soya- 
bean, is an upright, branching annual legume from 2 to 
4 feet high. It is abundantly supplied with leaves and 
when mature the plant possesses many small pods some- 
what similar to those of the garden bean. The leaves 
and the seeds are the most valuable part of the plant 
when grown as a forage crop. The nodules forming on 
the roots are often as large as a pea seed ; it is supposed 
that in many soils the proper nodule-forming bacteria 
are wanting and that soils where soy beans are to be 
grown should therefore be supplied with the bacteria by 
some method of inoculation. Both the plant and the 
seed are rich in nitrogen and the seeds contain much fat. 

112. Cowpeas. — The cowpea is also an annual 
legume. Though it is a native of the Southern states, it 
is now successfully grown in the ^orth. The hay made 
from cowpeas is fed to all kinds of livestock and has the 
same general uses as soy bean hay. The seeds, when 
ground, make a very rich concentrate, and are fed to 



114 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTUEE 

animals as grain, replacing other similar rich feeds such 
as oil meal and cottonseed meal. Also a considerable 
amount of cowpeas is grown that their seeds may supply 
food for man. Because of the heavy growth which cow- 
peas make, they are extensively grown for green manur- 
ing. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What crops are raised in your community for hay? 

2. Describe how hay is harvested in your community. 

3. Do the farmers in your community use hay caps ? Hay 
loaders ? 

4. How many acres of alfalfa are there in your school dis- 
trict ? 

5. What must be done in your community to grow alfalfa 
successfully ? 

6. Are cow peas and soy beans grown in your locality ? 

7. How many pounds of digestible protein per acre can be 
obtained from an alfalfa field if the yield from three cuttings 
is 4 tons? (Use Table 4, Appendix.) 

8. From a clover and timothy field if the yield is two tons 
per acre? 

9. From a timothy field if the yield is two tons per acre? 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Red Clover, F. B. 455, 451. 

Alfalfa, F. B. 339. 

Soy Beans, F. B. 372. 

Vetches, F. B. 515. 

Canada Field Peas, F. B. 224. 

Sudan Grass, F. B. 605. 

Commercial Varieties of Alfalfa, F. B. 757. 

Canada Blue Grass, F. B. 402. 

Field Peas as a Forage Crop, F. B. 690. 

Cowpeas, F. B. 318. 

Sweet Clover, F. B. 485. 



FOKAGE CROPS 115 

Millets, F. B. 101. 
Rape, F. B. 164. 
Sorghums, F. B. 246, 458. 
Market Hay, F. B. 508. 
Haymaking, F. B. 943. 

Sundry Publications. 

Hand Book on Forage Crops, by The Albert Dickinson Co., 

Free. Chicago, Illinois. 
For Better Crops, by the International Harvester Co., 6 cents. 
Extension Dep't., Harvester Bld'g., Chicago, 111. 



CHAPTEE XII 



OTHER FARM CROPS 



113. Potatoes. — Our common potato is often called 
the Irish potato, and sometimes the white potato, to dis- 
tinguish it from the sweet potato. The common potato 



POTATO ACREAGE 



EACH DOT REPRESENTS 
1,000 ACRES 




Yearbook of Department of Agriculture 



is a native of South America where the early Spanish 

settlers found it growing. To-day potatoes are grown 

practically in every country. 

116 



OTHEK FARM CROPS 



117 



The states leading in the production of potatoes are: 



1. Minnesota 

2. Wisconsin 



3. New York 

4. Maine 



5. Michigan 

6. Pennsylvania. 



114. Varieties of Potatoes. — The varieties of po- 
tatoes are very numerous. Some of the most common 
ones grown in the United States are : — 



Early 
Early Ohio 
Early Rose 
Irish Cobbler 
Triumph 



Late 
Rural New Yorker 
Carman 
Burbank 
Green Mountain 




2 02L 



4oz. 



6 oz: 



8 o. 



Cutting Potatoes for seed. Note tho size of the pieces. 
Courtesy of Iowa State Department of Public Instruction 

115. Seed Potatoes. — As in the case of other crops, 
the potatoes used for seed are an important factor in de- 
termining the yield. Potatoes are raised from seed 
pieces or cuttings ; that is from sections of a potato con- 
taining one or more eyes, preferably two. The eyes are 
really buds, for the potato tuber is merely an enlarged 
underground stem and not a root. The potatoes used 
for seed should be a good example of the variety ; should 



118 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 



be pure ; should come from productive plants ; should be 
uniform in size and in shape ; and should be sound and 

firm. The seed should 
preferably be selected in 
the field when the pota- 
toes are dug, and should 
come from hills contain- 
ing six or more sound, 
medium-sized potatoes. 

Although we have, for 
many years, harvested be- 
tween 300 and 400 mil- 
lion bushels of potatoes, 
we produce only about 7 
per cent, of the world's 
crop. Our average yield 
per acre is about 95 bush- 
els. In England the 
yield per acre is about 
twice as great. 
1 1 6. Cultural Methods. — The best yields of pota- 
toes are obtained on light, loam soils, well-drained, and 
rich in vegetable matter. Because of this need of vege- 
table matter in the soil, potatoes are often planted after 
a clover or grass crop. The seed pieces are planted 
deeply, three to five inches, because the new potatoes 
are developed at the ends of small branches growing out 
from the short nodes or joints of the underground stem. 
Potatoes are planted in rows 30 to 36 inches apart and 
the seed pieces are dropped 12 to 18 inches apart in the 
row, either by hand, or by means of a potato planter. 




POTATO PLANT 

Showing Potatoes or Tubers 



OTHER FARM CROPS 119 

117. Potato Diseases and Pests. — The two most 
common diseases of the potato are scab, and blight, and 
the common pest is the '' potato " bug or Colorado potato 
beetle. 

Potato Scab. — Potato scab is a fungus disease affect- 
ing the skin of the potato, causing it to become rough 
with elevations and depressions. The spores causing the 
disease winter in the soil and on the infected potatoes. 
It is supposed that the principal source of infection 
comes from infected seed potatoes. Potato scab may be 
largely prevented by clean seed, by rotating crops, and by 
soaking the seed potatoes for two hours before planting 
in a solution of formaldehyde, made by adding one pint 
of formaldehyde to thirty gallons of water. 

Potato Blight. — There are two potato blight diseases, 
one called the early blight and the other, the late blight. 
Both the early and the late blight make their first ap- 
pearance as brown spots on the leaves of the potato 
plants. These spots enlarge until the entire leaf be- 
comes brown and withered. While the leaves are thus 
being destroyed the stems gradually turn yellow; then 
they, too, become brown and die. 

The remedies for both kinds of potato blight are 1, 
clean seed potatoes; 2, crop rotation; 3, spraying the 
growing plants with Bordeaux mixture. 

The Colorado Potato Beetle. — The Colorado potato 
beetle is commonly called the potato bug. The adult 
beetle lays masses of small orange-colored eggs on the 
under surface of the potato plant leaves. In about a 
week these eggs hatch into small, soft, reddish larvae 
which feed upon the leaves. These larvae have ravenous 



120 AX IXTEODUCTION TO AGIRICULTUEE 



appetites and if unchecked, they will soon destroy all the 
foliage. They are usually killed by spraying the potato 
vines with a poisonous substance such as Paris green, 
or arsenate of lead. (See Chapter XX.) 

1 1 8. Cotton. — The principal crop of the Southern 
states is cotton. Cotton is the most valuable fiber crop 
grown. In addition to the lint, it produces seeds from 




COTTON 
ACREAGE 



YearhooTc of the Department of Agriculture 

which cottonseed oil and cottonseed meal are made. 
These by-products are very valuable. Cotton is grown 
in all warm countries; and, although it is a tropical 
plant, it thrives well in the warmer parts of the temper- 
ate zone. 

Our principal cotton growing states are: — 



Texas 


Mississippi 


Arkansas 


Georgia 


Oklahoma 


Louisiana 


Alabama 


South Carolina 


North Carolina 



OTHER FARM CROPS 



121 



1 19. The Plant and Cultural Methods.— The 

cotton plant is quite large and much branched. It com- 
monly grows from 4 to 6 feet high. It is an annual and 
the crop is grown much like com. Usually the rows 
are four feet apart, and the plants 14 to 20 inches apart 
in the row. The crop is cultivated just as corn is. The 
plants produce large oval leaves, four to five inches wide, 
and numerous large flowers. Each of these flowers, when 
mature, develops into 
a large, somewhat egg- 
shaped structure, 
called the boll. When 
ripe the boll bursts 
open, showing the 
white woollv lint, 
which is attached to 
the seeds. The lint 
together with the seed 
is picked out of the 
bolls by hand, and the 
seeds are then sepa- 
rated from the lint by 
a machine called the 
cotton gin. When a '''''''''''' ^^^^"^ 

^ a>. flowering branch; b. fruit (boll) 

SUCCeSSIul cotton pick- bursting; c. seed with fibers (lint). — 
, . Wossidlo. 

mg machine comes 

into general use, it will solve a troublesome labor prob- 
lem in the production of this staple. The United States 
produces about one half of the world's cotton crop and 
for many years our crop numbered from 10 to 15 million 
bales of lint, each bale weighing 500 pounds. 




122 AN I^^TKODUCTIO^^ TO AGEICULTUEE 



120. Tobacco. — In various parts of tlie United 
States the raising of tobacco is an important industry. 
The United States raises a little less than one-half of 
the world's tobacco crop. Our average production is 
about 1 billion pounds. The states leading in the pro- 



duction of tobacco are given below : 

1. Kentucky 3. Virginia 

2. North Carolina 4. Ohio 



5. Tennessee 

6. Wisconsin 



121. Cultural Methods. — Tobacco differs from the 
vother crops we have been discussing in that the plants 

are started in a special 
seed bed, hot bed or 
cold frame and then 
transplanted to the 
field. The seed is 
sown earlv in a spe- 
cially well prepared 
seed bedj wdiich is usu- 
ally in a sheltered 
place where the young 
plants may be pro- 
tected. Often the en- 
tire seed bed is covered 
with cheese-cloth or 
with glass. When the young plants are three or four 
inches high, they are transplanted to the field where 
Tthey are planted in rows, 3 to 4 feet apart, with the 
plants 14 inches to two feet apart in the rows, tlie 
.exact /distance depending upon the variety of the 
plant. The crop is then cultivated just as other crops 




TOBACCO PLANT 



OTHER FAEM CROPS 123 

are cultivated. Tobacco thrives best on a ligbt, 
i-ich soil, and usually only the best and richest fields on 
the farms are planted to tobacco. The transplanting 
was formerly done entirely by hand, but now, where 
much tobacco is grown, transplanting machines are ex- 
tensively used. 

When the flower buds appear, the top of the stem is 
broken off about three feet from the ground so that all 
the nourishment goes to the leaves, thereby causing them 
to grow as large as possible. This process is called top- 
ping. The young shoots, called suckers, are also broken 
off. 

122. Harvesting the Crop. — As the leaves ripen, 
there are two methods of harvesting the crop. In one 
instance, the leaves are broken from the plant and hung 
in a shed to cure. In the other method, the entire plant 
is cut down, when the lower leaves are just beginning to 
ripen, and himg in a shed. In the latter method, the 
leaves do not all cure alike, as thev do when all are 
allowed to ripen on the plant before they are gathered, 
but as the method involves much less work, it is more 
commonly used. 

123. Curing Tobacco. — The separate leaves, or the 
stalk and leaves, after they are gathered and hung in the 
sheds, are allowed to dry, and at the same time, to 
undergo a change called curing. The value of the leaf 
depends to a considerable extent on the satisfactory eoan- 
pletion of this curing. The sheds are constructed so 
as to regulate the supply of air currents, moisture and 
heat. 

124. Rice. — Rice is one of the most important foods 



124 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUPtE 

of the human race and especially of the people living in 
China, Japan, India and Egypt. These four countries 
lead in the production of rice. Although many of the 
southern states are adapted to growing rice, we import 
more than we raise ; and more attention should be given 
to the culture of rice in the United States. In form 
and structure the rice plant bears some resemblance to 
the other cereal grains. The head of the plant is spread- 
ing and resembles that of oats. The grain has the outer 
coverings attached just as oats have, but the naked 
kernel looks much like that of wheat in shape, color and 
size. The kernels of rice we buy to eat have had the 
outer coats or bran removed and have been polished to 
give them their gloss, thereby losing much of their 
nutritive value as food. Rice is grown on rich low 
land which can easily be flooded or irrigated. 

125. Sugar Cane. — The granulated sugar we eat is 
made either from sugar cane or from sugar beets. Cane 
sugar is made from the sugar cane plant, which grows 
only in tropical or sub-tropical regions. The sugar cane 
plant somewhat resembles the corn plant. It has stems, 
8 to 20 feet high, which are from one to two inches thick. 
The plant is propagated by cuttings of the stems which 
bear buds at the nodes. Trenches are plowed and pieces 
of the stalks, each bearing at least one node, are dropped 
in the trenches and covered. The land is then tilled to 
keep it free of weeds. At harvest time the plants are 
stripped of their leaves and topped, and the stalks are 
then cut, close to the ground. New plants spring up 
from the stubble. The stalks are taken to factories 
where they are crushed and the sugar is made from the 



OTHER FAEM CEOPS 125 

juices they contain. Louisiana and Texas are the prin- 
cipal states producing cane sugar. Cuba, Porto Rico, 
Hawaii and the Philippine Islands are important cane 
sugar producing countries. 

126. Sugar Beets. — The sugar beet is a large, 
whitish, and conical shaped beet. The plant resembles 
the common garden beet, and differs from it only in that 
its leaves are much larger and coarser. The sugar beet 
is an important plant, as about one-half of all the sugar 
used is beet sugar. Sugar beets thrive best in a cool, 
moist climate and are therefore best adapted to the 
northern states. 

The crop is grown just as the garden beets are grown, 
but where extensively raised, the crop is planted with a 
special, four-row beet planter and also cultivated with a 
four-row cultivator. When the crop is ready to harvest, 
the beets are generally dug with a beet digger. The 
crowns of the plants are then cut off by hand and the 
leaves and crowns are fed either to stock or left on the 
ground to be plowed under. The beets are hauled or 
shipped to the beet sugar factories where they are thor- 
oughly washed, sliced, and steamed to dissolve and re- 
move the sugar. The syrup thus obtained is purified 
and granulated. The by-product, beet pulp, is either 
fed to stock or it is dried and sold on the market as dried 
beet pulp. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What percentage of the total potato crop of the United 
States does your state grow ? (Refer to your state census re- 
port if necessary.) 



126 AN INTEODUCTIO^ TO AGEICULTURE 

2. What are the most common varieties of potatoes grown 
in your community? 

3. Why are potatoes such a popular and important ar- 
ticle of diet ? 

4. What are some of the articles made from cotton? 

5. Give the history of the cotton gin. 

6. Look up the history of the introduction of tobacco into 
England. 

7. Tell why a crop of tobacco is harder on the soil than is 
a crop of corn. (See Table 2 appendix.) 

8. Is beet or cane or maple sugar used in your home? 
Wliich do you prefer? 

9. If potatoes are planted in rows 3 feet apart and 12 
inches apart in the row, how many hills are there per acre? 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Lessons from Potato Growers in Germany, Bui. 47, 5 cents. 
Potato Growing Cliihs m the North and West, B. P. I. Paper. 

5 cents. * 

Varieties of Potatoes, Bui. 176, 20 cents. 
Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tohacco, B. P. I.^ 

Bui. 143, 10 cents. 
Z7. S. Official Cotton Grades. B. P. I. Cir. 109, 5 cents. 
Lessons on Cotton for Rural Schools, Bui. 294, 5 cents. 
Insect Enemies of Tobacco, Yearbook Separate, 537, 5 cents. 
Potatoes as Food, Bui. 468, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Potatoes as a Truck Crop, F. B. 407. 
Good Seed Potatoes. F. B. 533. 
Potato Diseases, F. B. 544, 91. 
Tobacco Culture, F. B. 571. 
Curing Tobacco, F. B. 523. 
Cotton Imp7'ovement, F. B. 501, 601, 
Sea Island Cotton. F. B. 302, 787. 
Cotton Culture, F. B. 314. 



OTHEK FAllM CEOPS 127 

The Sugar Beet, F. B. 52, 568. 

Irrigation Practice in Growing Rice, F. B. 673. 

Increasing the Potato Crop hg Spraging, F. B. 863. 

Tobacco Culture in Penn., F. B. 416. 

Tobacco Culture in Tenn., F. B. 343. 

Rice Culture, F. B. 417 

Manures for Cotton, F. B. 48. 

Sweet Potatoes, F. B. 324. 

Sugar-Beet Sirup, F. B. 823. 



CHAPTER XIII 



SEEDS 



All seeds are formed bv flowers and their formation 
involves the processes of pollination and fertilization. 
Seeds contain both a little immature plant and some 
stored up food. Seeds form a large part of man's food. 

127. Plant Food in Seeds. — All three of the classes 



00" 




LIMA BEAN 

a, cotyledons opened to show hypocotyl and plumule ; b to e, successive 
stages in germination showing development of hypocotyl, roots, cotyledons, 
stem, and plumule. 



of food are found in seeds : these are the carbohydrates, 
the proteins, and the fats. 

Carbohydrates. — Starch and sugar are examples of 
carbohvdrates. In all seeds we find considerable starch, 

128 



SEEDS 



129 



but very little sugar. The starch is insoluble, so when 
the seed begins to germinate, the starch is changed to 
sugar and in this form it readily moves to the growing 



Corn 



5T>fGZ I 



C/f OM/A/ 



j3o£^y 



r/e. 




L£y^/^ 




"SA//V 
(£^OCA/7P) 



SrytG^zr 




-sr^ M 



[...SscoA/^yf^y 



^^ootHa/RS 




Sr^GsM 






STAGES IN THE GERMINATION OF CORN 

parts. The starch is always found in the form of small 
grains in the cells of the seeds. If seeds are crushed 
and boiled with water, the starch solution will turn blue 
when a few drops of a solution of iodine are added. 



130 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

Proteins. — Substances having the same composition 
as the white of eggs, or as lean meat, are called proteins. 
They differ from the carbohydrates in that they contain 
nitrogen. The sticky part of wheat is protein. Beans^ 
peas, and the seeds of other leguminous plants are rich 
in protein. When substances containing much protein 
are scorched, they produce an odor similar to that of 
burning hair, feathers, and wool. This test aids in dis- 
tinguishing the presence of protein. 

Fats. — Fats or oils occur in many seeds, and in flax 
seed, in cotton seed, and in corn, the fat is found to be 
considerable. When these seeds are crushed on a piece 
of paper and slightly heated, the oil spot which appears 
shows that fats are present. 

128. Propagation of Plants. — It is by the forma- 
tion of seeds that most plants continue both to live from 
year to year, and to increase in numbers. To propa- 
gate means to increase in numbers. Most plants, when 
left to themselves, die after a few years. The farmer 
makes it his business to see that, as the old plants die, 
many new ones are raised to take their place. The chief 
work of the farmer, indeed, is the propagation of plants. 

129. High Grade and Low Grade Seeds. — Seeds 
of high quality should be : 

1. Well matured and not more than two years old. 

2. One hundred per cent pure. 

3. Of a high weight per bushel. 

4. Bright and have a live color and sweet odor. 

5. Free from, disease, injury, dirt and weed seeds. 

6. Well graded. 

7. A strong and high germination power. 



SEEDS 131 

Important as higli grade seeds are known to be, never- 
theless, large quantities of inferior seeds are sold in 
every state. Many farmers demand cheap seeds, think- 
ing it economy to purchase a medium, or lov^ grade, of 
seed at a little lower price, rather than to pay the in- 
crease in cost and secure a high grade, clean, pure, 
strong seed. It is this unintelligent purchase of low 
grade seed which is largely responsible for the weed 
problem in many sections. To aid in the selection of a 



f 


Kind of Seed Name 




Amount WHrRC grown ' 




Purity per cent Germination test perceht 


% 


IMPURITIES 

1 Name and number of noxious weeds 


? Name and per cent of other seeds 


V 


.IPer cent of inert matter 




SEED COMPANY 

WIS 



LOOK FOR THIS LABEL 

Every lot or package of agricultural seeds exceeding one pound in weight, 
sold or offered for sale in Wisconsin, must bear a label furnishing this in- 
formation. — \\ iaconsin Bulletin 254. 



better grade of seed. State Experiment Stations have 
State Grain or Seed Laboratories where the analysis of 
seeds is made free of charge to residents within the 
state. 

130. Seed Selection. — By careful selection of seeds, 
better crops may be secured, and plants may be im- 
proved in many ways. If the best seeds are selected and 
if these are carefully graded either by hand, by fanning 



132 AN i:n'tkoduction to agriculture 

mill, or by grain graders, all the broken, cracked, ligbt, 
and shriveled seeds will be removed, together with weed 
'seeds, the chaff, and the dirt, and only the best grade 
of seed will remain to be planted. If sTich a practice is 
followed, the quality will be kept up, and the seed will 
not run out as it does where no means are taken to secure 
only the best for seed. 

131. Crop Improvement. — Great improvement in 
corn, in wheat, in other grains, and in potatoes, as well 
as in many other kinds of plants, has been made in the 
last decade. This improvement is largely the result of 
testing seed after it has been harvested. We must go 
into the field and observe the growing plants and make 
the selections only from strong, healthy, leafy plants 
having all the characteristics we desire. These seeds 
should then be carefully graded and tested, and only 
those seeds showing a strong and high germination power 
should be used. 

132. Testing Seeds.^ The two common methods of 
testing seed corn, the ragdoll and the sawdust box 
methods, are described in Chapter IX on corn. We 
will here discuss only the testing of other seeds. 

The Plate Tester. — - The simplest way of testing the 
small grains, clover and grass seeds is to use a plate 
tester. For this test all that is needed is two tin pie 
plates or common dinner plates ; and two pieces of cot- 
ton flannel, or blotting paper cut to fit into the b(5ttom 
of the plates. Moisten the cloth or paper and place one 
piece in one of the plates. Count out one hundred seeds 
and place them upon the wet cloth or paper, and cover 
with the other cloth or paper. Then cover with the 



SEEDS 133 

other plate and keep in a warm place. These cloths or 
papers should be kept wet and the seeds examined from 
day to day. The number which sprout determines the 
percentage of good seed and represents the germination 
power of the whole sample tested. If only one sample is 
tested at one time it will be difficult to tell the compara- 




SEED-TESTlNG DEVICE. — Farmers' Bulletin 408 

tive strength of growth of the different varieties of 
seeds. It is therefore best to test two or more different 
samples at the same time, or to test some good seeds of 
known growing quality at the same time as a new 
sample, in order to show the comparative strength of 
growth. 

Test two or more different samples of some one kind of 
seeds, such as wheat, clover, or grass seeds, and determine 
the germination power and comparative strength of growth 
of each. If only 50 seeds instead of 100 are used, the per- 
centage is found by multiplying by 2 the number which 
sprouts. Why ? 

133- Conditions Affecting Germination. — If the 

seeds are to sprout and grow well, there are several con- 
ditions which must be favorable, such as moisture, tem- 
perature, air, depth of planting, fineness of the seed bed^ 
and the nature of the seed case. 

The size of the seed determines to a large extent the 



134 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

depth of planting. Small seeds which produce weak 
plantlets must be left near the surface of the ground, and 
they also need the finest seed bed. Many garden seeds 
should not be planted more than half an inch deep. 
Peas are sometimes planted several inches deep. Some 
authorities say, plant seeds four times as deep as their 
diameter. 

In order that seeds may germinate, they must be able 
to absorb moisture. They will do this better if the soil 
over them is compact. The danger in this compacting 
is that a crust may form which may hinder the young 
plants from breaking through. If the soil is too com- 
pact, or too wet, the lack of air will hinder germination, 
for seeds must have plenty of air. In fields which be- 
come covered with water soon after planting, seeds do 
not sprout. 

There is a certain temperature which is best for the 
sprouting plants. If the soil is colder than this the 
seeds will not sprout, or will sprout slowly. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Make a list of seeds used for man's food. 

2. Which would be the better balanced ration : one of beans^ 
bread and butter; or one of beans, bread and cheese? 

3. Do beans or corn contain the more fat? 

4. How would you distingnish between seeds of a good 
and seeds of a poor quality? 

5. Describe what you have ever seen done in the way of 
seed selection ? 

6. If one extra day were spent by every farmer each year 
in the selection and caring for seed corn and the yield 
thereby increased 2% would it pay? 



SEEDS 135 

7. If the annual corn crop of the U. S. were increased 2% 
what would the increase be worth at 50 cents per bushel? 

Consult the latest Yearbook of the Department of Agricul- 
ture for the data for Problems 6 and 7. 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washing-ton, D. C. 

Yitality and Germination of Seeds, B. P. I. Bui. 58, 10 

cents. 
Production of Vegetable Seeds, B. P. I. Bui. 184, 10 cents. 
How Seed Testing Helps the Farmer, Yearbook, Sept., 679, 

5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

The Adulteration of Forage Plant Seeds, F. B. 382. 
Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities, P. B. 260. 
Dodder and Its Relation to Farm Seeds, F. B. 306o 
Testing Seeds, F. B. 428. 
Propagation of Plants, F. B. 157. 
C om^nercial Clover Seed, F. B. 353. 
Hard Clover Seed, P. B. 676. 



CHAPTER XIV 



PLANT ENEMIES 



WEEDS, INSECTS AND DISEASES 

134. What a Weed Is. — A weed is a plant grow- 
ing where it is not wanted. It is a plant so well adapted 
to the place where it grows that it crowds out more de- 
sirable plants. A plant that is 
an annoying weed to some farm- 
ers, mav elsewhere be a cultivated 
crop. For example, sweet clover 
is a weed in some localities, and, 
in others, it is regarded as a valu- 
able crop. 

135. Why Weeds are Ene- 
mies. — Weeds are enemies be- 



cause they prevent the best growth 
of the plants which are wanted. 
They generally grow fast and 
vigorously, and deprive the crops 
of moisture, plant food, and sun- 
light, and by these means cause 




CANADA THISTLE 

The lower figure shows how 
new plants arise from root- 
stocks. — Ohio Agricultural 
Experiment Station Bulletin dccrcaScd CrOT) viclds. 

136. Classes of Weeds. — 
Weeds, like other plants, are divided into classes: an- 
nuals, biennials, and perennials, according to their habit 

136 



PLAXT ENEMIES 137 

of producing seeds and length of life. The chickweed is 
an example of the first class, and is therefore called an 
annual. It comes up from the seed in the spring, blos- 
soms in midsummer, produces seeds, and dies the same 
year. Biennials may be represented by the wild carrot. 
This plant comes up from the seed, and the first year 
does not blossom but stores up nourishment. The sec- 
ond year it uses the nourishment to produce seed and 
then dies. Beets, parsnips, turnips, and such plants as 
produce fleshy roots the first year are biennials. An ex- 
ample of the third class is the Canada thistle. It comes 
up from the seed, produces seed after one or more years, 
and continues to live, perhaps for many years. Peren- 
nial herbs die down to the ground in the fall and grow 
again from the roots in the spring. 

Annuals, and How to Kill Them. — Annual weeds fol- 
low tilled crops. Some of the common annual weeds 
are: 

beggar tick jimson weed shepherd's purse 

chickweed morning glory wild buckwheat 

crab grass pigeon grass wild oats 

Mayweed pigweed wild mustard 

fleabane purslane 

horseweed rag^veed 

If annuals are prevented from going to seed, and if 
the young plants are hoed or raked up, that is the end 
of them. It is often well to let the ground lie a week 
or two after the seed bed has been prepared and before 
it is seeded, so that the weeds may have an opportunity 
to sprout. They may then be killed by harrowing the 
field just before the crop is planted. This gives the 



138 AN IiNTEODUCTIOIsr TO AGRICULTURE 



crop a chance to start before a new lot of weeds spring 
up. 

Biennials and How to Kill Them. — Some common 
biennial weeds are : — 



bull thistle 

burdock 

mallow 



meadow salsify 

teasel 

mullein 



wild parsnip 
wild carrot 



It is rather more diffi- 
cult to get rid of biennials, 
than of annuals for even 
though they are mowed off, 
the roots of biennials are 
left in the ground and they 
may send up a stem to pro- 
duce seeds the second year. 
They should never be al- 
lowed to go to seed, and 
where they occur on small 
patches as lawns, they 
should be killed by cutting 
off the plants just below 
the ground. 

Perennials and How to 
Kill Them. — The 2^reat 

Ohio Agricultural Exiyeriment Sta- niai'oritv of trOublcSOme 
tion Bulletin l/o j » 

weeds are perennials. 




QUACK-GRASS 



Among; these mav be mentioned :- 



Blue vervain 

Canada thistle 

catnip 

dandelion 



oxeye daisy 
quack grass 
sorrel 
wild garlic 



wire-grass 
plantain 
curled dock 
Johnson grass 



PLANT ENEMIES 139> 

Perennial weeds are the most ditiieult of all weeds 
to destroy, because both the tops and the roots must be 
killed. As with the other two classes, seed production 
should be prevented. The roots or underground stems 
should be plowed up or dug up, and either exposed to the 
sun of summer and the frost of winter, or raked off and 
burned. The roots may sometimes be starved by pre- 
venting any green part to live above the ground. Eor 
example, dandelions in a lawn may be killed by cutting 
off the plant an inch or more below the surface of the 
ground and pulling out the top. This can be done very 
rapidly with a spud. 

There can be no effective weed control unless fence 
corners, roadsides, and waste places are kept clean, and 
the state laws against noxious weeds are more vigorously 
enforced. 

Let each pupil bring into class every noxious weed he can 
name. 

137. Description of an Insect. — An insect is a 
small animal having six legs and its skeleton on the out- 
side. The body is divided into ring-like parts attached 
to each other. These are called segments and are in 
three groups — the head, the thorax, or chest, and the 
abdomen. The head has attached to it the jaws, feelers, 
and eyes. The thorax has three parts, to which are at- 
tached the six legs and wings. The abdomen is made up 
of rings and has a row of breathing pores or holes along 
each side. 

138. Life History of Insects. — Insects hatch from 
eggs as do many other animals. But instead of grow- 



140 AN IXTKODUCTIO^^ TO AGKICULTURE 

ing regularly, they pass through a change, or metamor- 
phosis, as it is called, the young being somewhat differ- 
ent from the adult. For example, the young butterfly 
and moth is a caterpillar having a worm-like body and 
many legs. This caterpillar, which is called a larva, 
grows rapidly and then passes into a resting stage. In 
this stage it is inclosed in a rather hard shel] often 
covered with a silk case called a cocoon. It is quiet and 



TYPICAL INSECT 

a, head with eyes and mouth parts; h, thorax, with legs and wings: 

c, abdomen, showing segments 



eats nothing. It may occupy this stage for days, weeks, 
or even all winter. After a time it comes out as an adult 
insect. It is in the larval stage that many insects do 
their harm by eating vegetation and foliage. 

Some insects, as the squash bug, the grasshopper, and 
the cricket, do not pass through a complete change, but 
have, when hatched, the same form as the adult except 
that their wings are wanting. Such insects molt, or 
shed their skins, several times ; and after each molt 
their winsfs, and bodies are lar2:er than before. 



PLANT ENEMIES 



141 



139. Classification of Insects. — In agricultural 
discussions, insects are divided into two groups, cutting 
and sucking insects. Cutting insects bite oil:' parts of 
the leaf or plant, and devour them. Sucking insects 




POTATO BEETLE 

a, eggs on underside of leaf; h, larva that eats the leaves; c, pupa; d, 
perfect insect; e, wing cover; /, leg 



insert their long, slender mouth parts into the plant and 
suck the juices from it. 

Some Common Cutting Insects. — Examples of cut- 
ting insects are the larva^ of: 



codling moth 
canker worm 
cabbage worm 



potato beetle 
army cutworm 
gypsy moth 



tussock moth 
June-beetle 
tent caterpillar 



The Codling Moth, an apple tree pest, is one of the 
most injurious of insects. The adult is a small gray 
moth about one-half an inch long. It lays its eggs on 



142 AN IXTEODUCTIO^^ TO AGEICULTURE 



the leaves or on the immature apples just as the petals 
of the apple blossoms fall^ or later, if it is the second 
generation. The larvae hatch, eat their way into the 

young apple, which 
may soon fall, if it 
harbors the first gen- 
eration. Afterwards 
the larvse work their 
way out of the apple 
and crawl into a crev- 
ice of the bark of the 
tree or similar place, 
from which thev 
emerge as adult in- 
sects. The larva is 
the white worm so fa- 
miliar in apples, 
often called the ap- 
ple worm. 

The canher worm 
is found on fruit and shade trees. The adult is a small 
ash-colored moth, the female of which is wingless. The 
larva is often called the measuring worm because of its 
method of traveling by looping its body. The eggs are 
laid in patches on the bark of a tree. The larvse will 
strip the foliage of the tree with great rapidity. After 
the worms have matured, they swing themselves down by 
a silken thread, burrow in the ground, and there go into 
the resting state. The last brood stays in the ground 
over winter. 

The cahhage worm is the larva of the well-known white 




CODLIXG MOTH 

a, the entrance hole: h, the burrow; c, 
the larva; d, the pupa; e, moth at rest; /, 
moth with wings spread; r/, head of larva; 
h, cocoon containing pupa. 



PLANT E]SrE.MIES 14a 

cabbage butterfly. It is greenish white iu color, taper- 
ing at each end, and covered with fine white down. The 
eggs are laid on the leaves of the cabbage and similar 
plants. In ten days they hatch, and the larvae feed on 
the leaves about three weeks. The resting stage of the 
first brood lasts about two weeks and the brood is gen- 
erally hatched in May. The second brood is hatched in 
July. 

The potato beetle is well known. In the Central 
States there are generally three broods, the last one re- 
maining in the ground over the winter in the resting 
stage. The larvae of the two broods feed about twenty 
days each, and remain quiet in the ground ten or twelve 
days. This insect is discussed more fully in Chapter 
XII. 

Some Common Sucking Insects. — Examples of suck- 
ing insects are : — 



Plant lice San Jose scale Cottony maple scale 

Chinch Bugs Oyster-shell scale 

Plant lice are small, green, oval insects which live 
upon many different plants from which they suck their 
nourishment. They are most connnonly found upon 
leaves or vouno', green stems, but some varieties attack 
the roots of plants. Some are protected by a thin, waxy 
or downy scale-like covering, from which they get the 
name of scale insects. 

The chinch hug is less than a quarter of an inch long, 
but it is said to cause more damage than any other 
known species of insect. It is brown in color, with 




144 AN IXTKODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

white fore wings, each having a dark spot near the mid- 
dle. These insects are the greatest enemies of the wheat 

crop. They sometimes attack corn 
also, ^' fairly blackening the stalks 
with their bodies." Almost as harm- 
ful to the wheat crop as the chinch 
biiff, is the Hessian flv which is de- 
scribed in Chapter X. 

The San Jose Scale appears as 

small, gray, circular specks about the 

size of a pin head, on the tender bark 

cHixcH BUG of many fruit and shade trees. Be- 

( enlarged) •j.* n*j^' T nn ii , 

cause it IS so small it is difficult to 
detect it. The insect passes the winter beneath the scale 
in an immature stage. As the sap rises in the spring, 
the insect begins to extract it bv means of a suckins: 
tube, and soon matures. In ]\Iay or June minute vellow 
specks may be seen wandering over the surface of the 
bark. These are young scale insects produced by the 
adult female. They settle down, after a period of a few 
hours or a day, extract the sap and begin to secrete an 
armor-like scale. 

The oyster-shell scale is considerably larger than the 
San Jose Scale. It is about one-eighth of an inch long. 
It has an elongated shape, is convex and is irregular. It 
has a dark brown or gray color and its habits of 
growth, of producing young, etc., resemble the San Jose 
Scale. 

The cottony maple scale may be recognized easily by 
its cottony masses. This insect does great damage to 
soft maples, basswood, and box-elder trees and to many 



PLANT ENEMIES 



145 



shrubs. The adult passes the winter in a small oval 
scale about one-sixteenth of an inch long. In the spring, 
when it begins to develop eggs and the cottony, wax-like 
secretion, it rests upon one side. The eggs are scattered 




DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE SA"N JOSE SCALE (Enlarged five times). 
Virginia State Crop Pe,st Commission Bulletin 1904; Massachusetts De- 
partment of Agriculture Circular, No. 6. 



about in the cottony mass. The youna^ resemble those 
of the other scale insects. 

140. Insect Control. — Cutting insects are extermi- 
nated by spraying the foliage they devour with poison- 
ous mixtures, so that the insects take the poison in their 



146 A^ INTEODUCTIOiSr TO AGRICULTUKE 

food. Sucking insects are destroyed by covering their 
bodies with some substance which kills by contact. 
Good standard insecticides — substances which kill in* 
sects — for cutting insects, are arsenate of lead, and 




OYSTER-SHELL SCALE 

a, under side of female scale, showing eggs; h, upper side of same, both 
much enlarged; c, female scales on a branch, natural size: d. male scale, 
much enlarged; e, male scales on branch, natural size. The fine lines to 
the right of a, b, and d show the real length of the scales. — Howard, U. S. 
Dept. Afjr. Yearbook, 1894; Massachusetts Department of Agriculture Cir- 
cular, No. 6. 



Paris Green. For sucking insects, the most common 
remedy is kerosene emulsion. Formula for the various 
insecticides will be found in Chapter XX. 



PLANT ENEMIES 147 

141. Nature of Plant Diseases. — The third great 
enemy of the farmer's crop is disease. Plant diseases 
are caused by bacteria, molds, and other fungi. These 
organisms belong to a group of low vegetable forms 
which, not having any green coloring matter or chloro- 
phyll, are obliged to get food from some higher plant 
which has chlorophyll. 

These low forms of plant life grow mostly from spores, 
minute one-celled structures, which take the place of 
the seeds of higher plants ; sometimes they multiply by 
dividing into two or more parts. These spores are so 
small and so light that they may easily be carried by 
the wind. Corn smut and wheat rust are familiar ex- 
amples of these lower plants. When a mass of corn 
smut is broken, it sends out a great cloud of brown dust ; 
each particle of brown dust is a spore, which may pro- 
duce the disease in a corn plant the next year. Because 
of the vast number of spores, these organisms are multi- 
plied or propagated with great rapidity. The brown 
and nisty spots on the stubble of wheat^ oats, grasses, 
etc., are masses of spores produced by the rust disease 
affecting the plants. 

142. Some Common Plant Diseases and Their 
Treatment. — Some of the most familiar plant diseases 
are : — 

fire blight wheat rust potato blight 

oat smut potato scab corn smut 

Fire hlight gives to the end of pear and apple tree 
twigs the well-knowm blackened appearance. It is 
caused by bacteria growing in the inner layer of the 



148 AN INTllODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 

bark. There is no cure for fire blight. The twigs 
should be cut off and burned. 

The oat smut is a common funsnis which does much 
damage to the oat crop every year. The loss of oats due 
to smut amounted to 4 per cent, of the total crop grown 
in the United States in one year and the value of this 
was over $16,000,000.00. In some states the annual 
loss is 10 per cent, or more of the total crop. The dis- 
ease is spread through the seed planted. The spores find 
a good lodging place under the hull, and in the ground 
they begin to grow about the same time that the oat 
seed does. The spores form small threads which enter 
the young plant through the breathing pores. The dis- 
ease checks the growth of the plants, reduces the yield, 
and often destroys the grain, replacing the contents of 
the grain with a black mass of spores. The spores on 
the seeds may be killed by treating the seed oats with a 
solution containing one pint of formaldehyde or forma- 
lin in thirty gallons of water as described in Chapter X. 

Wheat rust appears as rusty and brownish streaks on 
the stubble of wheat plants. The spores are not spread 
by the seed, and rotation of crops is the only common 
means of checking the disease. 

The mildews which attack the gTape vines, lilac 
bushes, and many other plants, are common fungi which 
grow partly within the leaf, and partly upon its surface. 
These can be prevented by spraying the foliage with 
Bordeaux mixture. 

Potato scab is very familiar to all farmers and house- 
wives. This disease is caused by a fungus which grows 
on the skin of the potato causing the rough, irregular 



PLANT ENEMIES 149 

areas. The spores live on the seed potatoes and in the 
ground. The remedy is to soak the seed potatoes in the 
formaldehyde solution (see Chapter XII ), and rotate 
the crops. 

Potato blight affects the leaves of the plant and some- 
times the tuber in the ground. It causes the leaves to 
turn brown and brittle, and in time kills the plant. It 
may be prevented by constant spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture. Spraying should be started when the plants 
are about six inches high. (See Chapter XII.) 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Why is it more difficult to exterminate a perennial weed 
than ,an annual ^ 

2. Name some of the most noxious weeds in your com- 
munity ? 

3. Why are Canada thistle and dandelion hard to keep in 
check ? 

4. Which is better farming, to prevent weeds or to kill 
weeds ? 

5. Is it good practice to allow weeds to cover the ground 
after the garden crops are gathered ? 

6. Which is better, to kill a moth or a larva? Why? 

7. How does a robin locate a grub or worm in the ground? 

8. What injurious insects have you seen in vour commun- 
ity? 

9. Have you seen any trees infected with San Jose or 
Oyster shell scale ? If so, describe any effects you notice upon 
the tree. 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Rusts of Grains in U. S.. B. P. I. BuL 216, 15 cents. 
Potato Diseases, Bui. 64, 15 cents. 



150 AN INTIIODUCTION TO AGRICULTUKE 

Powdery Dry-rot of Potatoes, B. P. I. Cir..llO, 5 cents. 
The Weed Problem in Atnerican Agriculture, Year Book, 
Sep., 732, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Preventing Wheat and Oat Smut, F. B. 250, 507. 

Potalo Tuber Diseases, F. B. 544. 

Collecling and Preserving Insects, F. B. 606. 

The True Army Worm, F. B. 731. 

The Boll Weevil, F. B. 512. 

The Chinch Bug, F. B. 657. 

San Jose Scale, F. B. 650. 

Oyster Shell and Scurry Scale, F. B. 723. 

Gypsy and Brown Tail Molhs, F. B. 564. 

The Hessian Fly, F. B. 640. 

Wireworms, F. B. 725. 

Common White Grubs, F. B. 543. 

House Ants, F. B. 740. 

The Common Cabbage Worms. F. B. 766. 

Grasshopper Control, F. B. 747. 

Cereal Smuts and Seed Disinfection, F. B. 939, 



CHAPTER XV 

THE FARMER'S FRIENDS: BIRDS, TOADS, BEES 

143. Birds and Their Food.— While a large part 
of the farmer's work consists in fighting insects, weeds, 
and other injurious things, he has some valuable friends 
who work with and for him. Probably the most valu- 




ROBIN 



able are the birds. They aid the farmer by eating in- 
sects and seeds of weeds. 

Young birds grow rapidly and require a great amount 
of food. ]\rany of them are fed mostly on insects. It 
has been estimated that a pair of sparrows will carry 
more than three thousand caterpillars to their nest in a 

151 



152 AN INTEODUCTIO^^ TO AGKICULTUKE 

week. A young robin, kept in captivity, was fed sixty 
earthworms a day, and an observer claims that a pair of 
young European jays were fed a half million cater- 
pillars in a single season. 

144. Useful Birds. — Birds that help the farmer 
may be divided into three groups. First, those that live 




KINGBIKD 



chiefly, or prefer to live, upon animal food, such as in- 
sects in their various stages. Among these birds may be 
mentioned the 



robin 


kinglet 


kingbird 


thrush 


scarlet tanager 


pewee 


bluebird 


bobolink 


black-billed cuckoo 


phoebe 


wren 


woodpecker 



Second, those that eat both animal and vegetable food. 
Among these may be mentioned the 



BIEDS, TOADS, BEES 



153 



catbird 
brown thrush 
white-bellied nut- 
hatch 



chipping sparrow 
marsh robin 
purple grackle 



quail 
blue jay 
meadow lark 



Third, those that prefer a vegetable diet of seeds. 
Among these may be found the finch, thistle bird, indigo 
bird, and mourning dove. 

It is not to be understood that hard and fast lines can 
be drawn among the birds in regard to their feeding 
habits. Birds have their preferences, but the season 
of the year and the abundance or scarcity of a given food 
determine to a large extent the kind of f(5od eaten. 

Watch the various birds and learn their feeding habits. 
It is often possible to get into a position where the feeding 
of the young may be noted. 

145. Attracting the Birds. — In order that we may 
have more birds living about our homes, to help destroy 






a 



BIRD HOUSES 

a and b, made from boxes ; c, made from a tin can 

insects and give us pleasure by their songs and beauty, 
we must provide them with conditions which are favor- 
able to their ways of life. Birds must find suitable 



154 A^ lA^TEODUCTION TO AGRICULTUKE 

places for building their nests. The planting of trees 
and shrubs is the very best way of attracting birds. 
Clumps of shrubbery will afford excellent nesting places 
for shy birds, Avhile the crotches of trees will be used 
by robins and many others. The boys can easily make 
bird houses for wrens, martins, bluebirds, and chicka- 
dees. AYrens will often occupy a tin can or a small pail 
which has been fastened to a board with the closed end 
up and a small hole made in the side. 

The matter of food supply is a more pressing question 
with the birds than with human beings, for they cannot 
store away food to any great extent. During the sum- 
mer davs there are insects in abundance and often seeds 
and fruits. In the winter the birds that remain have 
difhculty in finding food. Then it is that a piece of 
suet or other fat meat fastened to a tree,\or some cracked 
nuts placed in a shallow box on a tree, will serve to call 
the chickadees, nuthatches, hairy woodpecker, downy 
woodpecker, brown creeper, blue-jay, and English spar- 
row. 

Water is essential to bird life. Often our feathered 
friends suffer in the summer time because they cannot 
readily find places to drink and bathe. It is an easy 
matter to place a pan or shallow dish partly filled with 
water on a post out of reach of cats. Most of you will 
be surprised at the number of bird visitors that will come 
every day to seek a drinking fountain. 

If stray cats of the neighborhood can be disposed of, 
this will serve as a very valuable way of increasing the 
number of birds about our homes. Children should be 
taught to care for the birds and not to molest them. 



BIKDS, TOADS, BEES 155 

146. Toads and Frogs.— The toad can lay no claim 
to beauty, but there is no more useful animal of its size. 
One of the most amusing pastimes is to catch rose bugs 
and put them down in front of a toad. The bugs sud- 
denly disappear. The toad's tongue is attached at the 
front of its mouth. It is covered with a sticky sub- 
stance, and can be snapped out like a whip-lash. There 
seems to be no limit to the number of bugs a toad can eat, 
so that toads exert a great power for good in ridding our 
gardens of destructive insects. The eggs of toads are 
laid in the water, in strings of a jelly-like substance. 
The tadpoles that are hatched from the eggs are useful 
in devouring the refuse matter in the pond. Erogs 
perfoim the same service. 

147. Importance of Bees.— Bees, and especially 
the honey bees, are other important friends of the farmer 
and they render him an invahiable service in pollenizing 
the flowers of fruit trees, of small fruits, and of many 
garden and field crops. But in addition to this very 
valuable and important service, they give him also 
a crop of honey worth about $20,000,000 a year in the 
United States and a crop of beeswax which has been 
estimated to be worth annually $2,000,000. 

148. Food of Bees.— Bees get all their food free of 
expense to the farmer ; and though bees do require some 
care, it is generally not expended in feeding them. 
Among the flowers on which bees feed may be men- 
tioned the clovers, buckwheat, locust, basswood, milk- 
weed, daisies, and other flowers, blossoms of fruit trees 
and shrubs, and cucumbei' and melon blossoms. In 
some localities, horsemint is an important bee flower. 



156 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTUEE 

149. A Colony. — Each colony of bees contains a 
queen, from ten thousand to fifty thousand workers, and 
a few hundred drones. The queen lays all the eggs. 
The workers are imperfectly developed females, and 






a 6 

BEES 

a, drone; h, queen; c. worker 

gather honey, furnish wax and beebread, make the 
combs and fill them, and also feed the young bees. The 
drones are the male bees and do no work. 

150. Development of Bees. — The queen lays one 
egg in each cell of the brood chamber ; out of it hatches 
the young bee or larva. This little insect appears like 

a worm, and gets only what is fed to 
it. After a few days, the cell is sealed 
up by the workers and the larva spins a 
silken covering or cocoon about itself. 
Then after about three weeks, it comes 
out, an insect with wings. The queen 
lays her eggs in three kinds of cells. 
DIAGRAM SHOWING A Out of tlic smallcst cclls come the work- 

BEE GETTING HONEY -^^ , , , . , , 

ers. ±"rom the next size come the 
drones, and in a few of the largest cells are laid eggs that 
are to produce queens. 

151. Swarming. — At certain times the bees, or 
most of them, in company with the queen, having their 




BIKDS, TOADS, BEES 



157 




sacks well filled with honey, rush forth from their hives 
and swarm, as we call it. After circling about in the 
air for a while they generally settle on a branch of a 
tree or brush near by. The bee keeper must then get 
them to settle in a new hive. Sometimes the hive is 
carried to the tree 
on which the bees 
have alighted, and 
if they are low 
enough they can be 
gently brushed in. 
More frequently, 
the branch is cut 
off and carried to 
the hive, where the 
bees are gently 
shaken to the 
ground before the 

new hive and they find their way in. If then a 
little new or unfilled comb is found in the hive, some- 
thing for them to go to work on, they will settle down 
and make it their home, and get to work. 

152. The Bee Hive. — The common bee hive con- 
sists of a base or bottom board upon which rests the 
large lower part of the hive called the brood chamber. 
The brood chamber generally contains ten movable 
brood-frames. These are about 9% x 17% inches and 
are hung from the top so that they are separated by a 
little space from the sides and bottom of the brood cham- 
ber, and also from each other, so that the bees can freely 
move about between the frames. In the cells of the 



CELLS COXTAINING EGGS, LARVAE, AND PUPAE 
OF THE HOXEYBEE 

The lower large, irregular cells are queen cells. 
— Benton 



158 A^^ IXTKODUCTIO:^ TO AGEICULTUKE 

brood chamber the queen lays the eggs. The upper 
chamber of the hive is commonly called the super. It 




FROXT VIEW OF HIVE 

Note the bricks for raising the hive four inches from the ground. On 
the bricks is the bottom board, then the brood chamber, and between this 
and the super, the qneen excluder. In the super is stored the surplus 
honey. Beneath the hive cover is a strip of tar paper or roofing-felt and 
on the top of the cover is a brick for weighting it down. — University of 
Missouri Bulletin 13 S. 

is separated from the brood chamber by a thin partition 
called a queen excluder. This queen excluder has open- 



EIEDS, TOADS, BEES 159 

iiigs just large enough for the workers to get through ; 
but prevents the queen from getting up in the super 
and depositing eggs there. In the super, there are gen- 
erally six movable frames called section-liolders, each of 
which accommodates four sections or comhs^ 4:y^ x 41^4 
inches, which when filled usually hold one pound of 
honey. The frames in the super and the combs are so 
made and supported that the bees can easily get about 
and do their work — that is, build the cells and fill them 
w^itli honey. 

Above the super is the top or cover of the hive. Such 
standard hives as are here described may be purchased 
very reasonably and it never pays to attempt to make 
them. 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Name the birds you have observed and know. 

2. In what seasons of the year do the birds destroy the 
greatest number of insects ? 

3. Describe what you have done to attract birds. 

4. Are the game laws in your state designed to protect the 
farmers in any way? 

5. How does a robin supply food for its young? 

6. How does a woodpecker locate a grub beneath the bark 
of a tree? 

7. What is the difference between a frog and a toad ? 

8. Counting 40 birds to a square mile, in the summer, how 
many birds are there in your state? 

9. Allowing 50 insects a day for 120 days of summer, and 
assuming that 60% of the birds in your state are insect eating 
birds, how many insects are destroyed in this period i 



160 AN INTKODUCTIOisr TO AGEICULTUEE 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Bird Day in Schools, Bio. Cir. 17, 5 cents. 

How Birds Affect the O^-chard, Yearbook, Sept., 1900, 5 

cents. 
Open and Closed Seasons for Game, Bio. Cir. 43, 5 cents. 
Plants Useful to Atti-act Birds, Yearbook, Sep., 504, 5 cents. 
Does it Pay to Protect Birds? Yearbook, Sep., 443, 5 cents. 
Birds That Eat Scale Insects, Yearbook, Sep., 41G, 5 cents. 
The Crow and its Relation to Man, Dept. Bull. 621, 15 cents. 
Food Hahits of Swallows, Dept. Bulletin, 619, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Common Birds of the Fai'm and Orchard, F, B. 513. 

Bird Houses and How to Make Them, F. B. 609. 

Food of Common Birds, F. B. 506. 

How to Attract Birds, F. B. 621, 760. 

Birds of Southeastern U. S., F. B. 755. 

The Grosbeaks, F. B. 456. 

Bees, F. B. 447, 397. 

Comh Honey, F. B. 503. 

Outdoor Wintering of Bees, F. B. 695. 

How to Attract Birds in Northwestern U. S., F. B. 760. 

Care and Management of Canaries, F. B. 770. 

How to Attract Birds in East Central States, F. B. 912. 



CHAPTER XVI 

GARDEN CROPS 

It is essential that all vegetables be grown rapidly, to 
be tender and delicate. ^Yllon tliev i^row too slowly they 
not only become tongh and tibrous but they also lose 
their good flavor. Some vegetables prefer cool weather, 
and others, warm weather ; when these are planted out 
of season, it is usually impossible to get vegetables of a 
good quality. This is why peas, spinach, lettuce, and 
radishes, which are plants preferring cool weather, 
cannot be successfully grown during the hot summer 
months. 

153. Classes of Vegetables. — Garden crops may 
be divided into two classes, the hardy and the tender. 
The hardy vegetables can stand light freezing and are 
not killed by frost; therefore, they may be planted 
early, some of them as soon as the frost is out of the 
ground in the spring. The tender crops are killed by 
frosts, and therefore, should not be planted until all 
danger of frosts is over. Below is a classified list of 
the common vegetables : 



Hi 


^RDY 


TENDER 


Beets 


Parsley 


Beans Peppers 


Brussels 


Parsnips 


Lima Beans Potatoes 


sprouts 


Peas 


Cantaloupes Pumpkins 


Cabbage 


Radishes 


Celeriac Squash 
161 



162 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 



HA 


RDY 


TENDER 


Carrots 


Spinach 


Celery 


Sweet Pota- 


Cauliflower 


Salsify 


Corn 


toes 


Endive 


Swiss Chard 


Cucumber 


Tomatoes 


Kale 


Turnips 


Egg--plant 


Watermelons 




Lettuce 


Onions 





154. Companion Crops. — Whenever slowly grow- 
ing and late maturing crops are planted in hills, some 
sort of quickly growing and early maturing crop may be 
sown in the rows between the hills. This process not 
only economizes space and labor, but also gives a greater 
variety of vegetables on any given area. Another way 
of growing a companion crop is illustrated when an addi- 
tional row of some early vegetable is planted between 
the rows of a late maturing crop, the rows of which are, 
when mature, three or more feet apart. 

Radishes, green onions, spinach, and lettuce may be 
planted in rows between the corn, potatoes, tomatoes, 
melons, cucumbers, etc., and will be harvested before 
the spaces between the rows are needed by the later 
crops. These early crops may also be planted in the 
same rows with all crops which are planted in hills, and 
the early crops will be harvested before either they or 
the hill crop is in any way affected by their having been 
planted together. 

155. Succession Cropping. — In small gardens, the 
land should be continuously cropped, and when one row 
of vegetables is harvested, another should take its place. 
This is the meaning of succession cropping, and to 
make a success of this, one must have a thorough knowl- 
edge of the various kinds of vegetables and must know 



GAKDEX CROPS 163 

how long it requires each kind to mature, so that when 
an early maturing kind is removed, some other vege- 
table which will mature, may be planted in its place. 

The following list contains the vegetables which may 
be followed by another crop, and sometimes, by two 
other crops ; 



Eadishes 


Kale 


Early potatoes 


Lettuce 


Peas 


Early corn 


Spinach 


Beans 


Early turnips 



The following list contains vegetables which usually 
require the whole season, and, therefore, may not bo 
followed by other crops : 



Tomatoes 


Parsnips 


Melons 


Late potatoes 


Salsify 


Late celery 


Late cabbage 


Egg-plant 


Late endive 


Parsley 


Peppers 


Swiss chard 


TTvQmrklpG nf 


Q fliTfifi r«TnT\ Gnr> 


ppSQinn QVfi • 



Early green onions, followed by beans, followed by late 
radishes. 

Early radishes, followed by peas, followed by late spinach. 
Early spinach, followed by radishes, followed by late beans. 

Examples of a two crop succession are : — 

Early peas followed by tomatoes. 
Early potatoes followed by late cabbage. 
Early beans followed by endive. 

156. Hotbeds and Cold-Frames. — Hotbeds and 
cold-frames are used to start certain crops like tomatoes, 
egg plant, cabbages, etc., earlier than they could be 
planted in the open ground. Quite often seed flats, — 



164 AX INTKODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTUEE 

shallow boxes 2 to 3 inches deep, are used in place of 
hotbeds or in connection with them. These boxes may 
be placed near a window in any warm room and all 
garden crops requiring an early start may be successfully 
raised in them. The soil should be rich and should 
contain considerable humus and coarse sand, so that 
air may circulate well and the free water drain off 
readily. The soil in the hotbeds, cold-frames, and seed 
flats, should be watered frequently and never allowed to 
drv out. 

Making a Hotbed. — The ideal location for a hot- 
bed is in a place where it will have a southern exposure 
and, at the same time, be protected from the cold north 
winds. The south side of some building or fence is an 
ideal place. 

A pit one and one-half to two feet deep and having 
the same size as the frame, should be excavated, pref- 
erably in the fall. The frame should be made of 
boards one inch thick, should be about 12 inches high 
on the north side and six inches on the south side, and 
large enough for the sash or covering. This will give 
a slope to the south. This frame should be fastened by 
corner stakes over the pit and might, if desired, extend 
to the bottom of the pit. A few days before the first 
seeds are to be planted a layer about one foot deep of 
fresh or slightly heated horse manure should be put 
into the pit and thoroughly tramped down. After this 
manure is put in, a layer of good soil about six inches 
deep should be added. This soil should be kept moist 
and after it has passed through its first heating stage and 
cooled a little, a condition which may be determined by 



GAKDEN CliOrS 165 

putting the hand into it, the seeds may be planted. 
Manure and dirt are usually banked about the outside 
of the hotbed to aid in keeping the hotbed warm. The 
heat comes from the fermenting or decomposition of the 
manure. In the hotbed the seedlings must be given air 
and sunlight and must be kept from becoming either 
too warm^or too cold. The temperature may be regu- 
lated both by sprinkling, and by raising and lowering 
the sash or cloth covering used to cover the bed. 

Truck gardeners and many farmers often plant seeds 
in flats and then place these flats in the hotbeds, using a 
little less soil. The flats are more easily handled and 
are very convenient in removing the seedlings to the 
field or in taking them to the market to be sold. In the 
flats the seedlings are not disturbed as they would have 
to be had they been planted directly in the hotbed. 

Cold frames are similar to hotbeds, except that they 
never contain any manure. They cannot be used as 
early in the spring nor as late in the fall as hotbeds 

can. 

157. Seed-Beds. — Sometimes seeds are started in a 
protected place in the garden, where the soil is rich, 
without any covering whatsoever. Such spots are called 
seed-beds. '^ Sometimes, however, the seed-beds are pro- 
tected from the hot sun by having a cloth stretched over 
them for shade. These seed-beds are used only for the 
production of late seedlings. 

158. Annual Flowering Plants.— The seeds of 
many annual flowering plants are very small, and if 
planted directly in the garden, the seed bed should be 
unusually welf prepared and the seeds barely covered. 



166 A^JNTRODUCTIOISr TO AGRICULTURE 

The soil should never be allowed to dry out until the 
plants have made a good start. Most of these plants 
may be started in seed flats in February or March, 
and these seed flats may be kept in hotbeds or in any 
warm room. 

A few common annuals are : asters, cosmos, marigold, 
petunias, candytuft, nasturtiums and sweet peas. 

159. Biennials. — The biennial flowering plants 
rarely flower during the first year of their life, but dur- 
ing the second year, after which they die. After they 
have flowered, many seeds from biennials fall around 
the base of the plants, and from these seeds new plants 
grow, so that often throughout successive years seeds 
do not need to be planted. This fact leads many to be- 
lieve that many plants which are biennials are peren- 
nials. 

A few common biennials are : — 

1. Sweet William 3. Pansies 

2. Hollyhocks 4. Canterbury bells 

5. Oriental Poppies. 

160. Perennials. — The perennial flowering plants 
are those which, when once started in a rich soil, will 
live for many years. They should be mulched with 
light, strawy manure during the winter. This mulch- 
ing not only protects the plants from freezing, but also 
acts as a good fertilizer, and the fine material the mulch- 
ing leaves loosens the soil. 

A few common perennials are : — 

1. Columbine 3. Larkspur 

2. Shasta daisy 4. Foxglove 



gaiide:n^ Cliors le? 

5. Phlox 8. Peonies 

6. Gaillardia 9. Iris 

7. Lillies 10. Snapdragons 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. How large is your home garden ? 

2. What crops were raised in your home garden last year ? 

3. Assuming that each vegetable raised last year in your 
garden would cost at the store from 1 to 5 cents for each 
grown member of the family for each meal, what would the 
approximate value of the crops raised last year in your home 
garden be? 

4. Make a list of the most nutritious vegetables. 

5. What vegetables are most suitable for winter storage ? 

6. Look up in a physiology the special value of many of the 
fresh vegetables. 

7. Figure the cost of making a hotbed 6' x 3' assuming that 
you have some old sash and lumber. 

8. Wliat would be a fair value of the spring crop that could 
be raised in the above hotbed? 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

School Exercises in Plant Production, F. B. 408. 

Potato Culture, F. B. 35. 

Okra, Its Culture and Use, F. B. 232. 

Frames in Truck Growing, F. B. 460. 

Callage, F. B. 433. 

Sweet Potatoes, F. B. 548, 324. 

Asparagus Culture, F. B. 61. 

Celery, F. B. 282. 

Cucumhers, F. B. 254. 

Annual Flowering Plants, F. B. 195. 

Tomatoes, F. B. 220. 

Tomato Growing in the South, F. B. 642. 

Callage Diseases, F. B. 925. 

Asparagus, F. B. 829. 

Saving Vegetalle Seeds for the Garden, F. B. 884. 



CHAPTER XVII 

HOME GARDENS 

The experience gained by the successful conducting 
of a good garden, the skill gained in its management, 
and the new insight into the natural processes of growth 
and development of plants, such work gives will have a 
greater value to the student of agriculture than any 
knowledge he could gain in anv other way. 

1 6 1. Location of the Garden. — The garden should 
be located in a sunny place, preferably sloping to the 
south, and convenient to the house. It should be of 
such a size that it may be well and thoroughly cared for ; 
on a farm it should be planned so that it may be worked 
largely with horses and horse tools. A garden's near- 
ness to the house makes it possible for its manager to 
spend odd time in caring for it. 

162. The Garden Soil. — The garden soil should be 
well drained, sw^eet, and rich. In it, much plant food 
should become available, so that the crops may grow 
rapidly. The manure applied in the spring should not 
be of a coarse, bulky nature, but should be well rotted 
and well worked into the soiL A light soil is preferable, 
and always makes the best garden spot. However, by 
proper treatment and cultivation almost any soil may be 
made suitable. If possible, the soil should be manured 
and plowed or spaded deeply in the fall, and left in a 

168 



HOME GARDENS 169 

rough condition during the winter. This treatment will 
make the soil light and mellow in the spring. 

163. Value of the Garden Plan. — Sometime dur- 
ing the winter, or early spring, one should carefully 
measure the ground available for the garden and make 
an accurate plan of it, drawn to some scale. A good 
garden plan not only gives one a definite idea of just 
what there is room for in the garden, but it also enables 
one to plan accurate space for just the vegetables and 
the quantities of them, he wishes to grow. From the 
plan, one can readily make out an economical seed order,, 
and save much time in planting the seeds. 

164. Essentials of a Good Garden Plan. — A good 
garden plan should show the garden laid out not in 
square beds or little patches as was formerly the prac- 
tice, but in long, straight rows. It should show the 
proper number of rows and the proper distances between 
these rows and should include a definite allotment of 
space for all the vegetables and flowers one wishes tO' 
grow. The perennials should be at one side or at 
the rear of the garden ; the tall plants, where they will 
not interfere with the growing of other crops. The plan 
should be true to the scale used and should provide for a 
succession of crops. It should also provide that crops, 
requiring the same kind of cultivation^ and having 
about 'the same length of growing season, be planted in 
the same or adjoining rows. A plan for any given 
season, when compared with the plan for the previous 
season, should also show a rotation of crops. 

Plan of a Garden. — A suggestive plan for a garden ia 
shown on the next page. 



170 A^ INTKODUCTION TO AGRICULTUKE 



1' 


Onion Sets 






follow 


with 


beans 




iy2' 


Beets 






follow 


with 


lettuce 




iy2' 


Radish and Lettuce 




follow 


with 


parsnip 




iy2' 


Spinach 






follow 


with 


beans 




2' 


Swiss Chard 














2' 


Peas 






follow 


with 


cabbage 




2y2' 


Peas 






follow 


with 


tomatoes 




2' 


Beans 






follow 


with 


turnips 




2' 


Beans 






follow 


with 


carrots 




iy2' 


Carrots 






follow 


with 


radishes 




i'y2 


Spinach 






follow 


with 


turnips 




i'y2 


Parsley, Radish 


and 


Lettuce 










1' 

















Scale Vi" = 1'. Make rows as long as desired. 
SIMPLE GARDEN PLAN 

165. Discussion of the Plan. — It rarely pays to 
plant any crops closer together than 18 inches. This 
amount of space or even 2 feet is necessary not only to 
allow room for walkino^ between the rows, but also to 
permit the use of all the common implements with the 
least amount of labor. This plan is given merely to 
illustrate what a garden plan looks like, and to assist in 
the making of one. The principles illustrated in this 
plan are those which should be shown in all garden 
plans. 

166. Successive Plantings. — Wherever two or more 
rows of any one kind of vegetable are planted, either a 
space of time amounting to a week or two, should inter- 
vene between the plantings, or an early variety of the 
vegetable should be planted in one row, and a late va- 
riety, in the other. If the rows are long, one-half or 



HOME GAKDENS 171 

one-third of a row should be planted at intervals of about 
a week. This intervention of time between plantings is 
especially important with radishes and similar crops, if 
a continuous supply of the vegetable is desired. 

There is no limit to the number of garden plans one 
may make for any particular area. All garden plans 
will vary according to the needs and tastes of the indi- 
viduals who make them. 

167. Further Suggestions. — Make the garden plan 
earlv so that the seed order mav be made out and the 
seeds ordered and tested before the rush season starts. 
Buy seeds in bulk if more than one package is needed. 
Seeds purchased in packages are expensive. Carefully 
study a seed catalog and make selections from the best 
varieties, regardless of the price, always putting quality 
first. It will pay in the end. Order the seeds from re- 
liable seed houses. Keep a record of the varieties 
planted. A good way to do this is to write the name 
of the variety on the garden plan, together with the 
dates of the plantings and the harvesting of the first 
crops. This will aid in the next year's work. 

Keep garden accounts and a diary of your garden 
work. 

Should you have a surplus of any crop, make an effort 
to sell it. Grocers are always ready to purchase fresh 
vegetables. 

Raise your own seedlings, or young plants to be trans- 
planted and you will then know what you are planting. 
Sell the extra seedlings you do not need. Every one 
should be able to sell good seedlings and any boy or 
girl who has studied agriculture should be able to grow, 



172 Al\ INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 

at a very little cost, many good, strong, healthy seedlings. 

1 68. Fertilizing the Garden. — Manure, compost, 
commercial fertilizers, and wood ashes are commonly 
used for fertilizing gardens. Well rotted manure is 
considered the best fertilizer, and from 20 to 30 tons per 
acre are often used. An application of 20 tons to an 
acre is equivalent to one ton to about 1000 square feet 
or to a piece of land 50 feet by 20 feet. The manure 
should preferably be applied in the fall before the gar- 
den is plowed, as this will give it time during the winter 
to partly decompose. Coarse, bulky, manure should not 
be used unless no other is available for gardening. A 
good application of a mixed fertilizer is 1000 lbs. per 
acre ; this would be equivalent to about one pound to 
43 square feet or to about 25 lbs. to a garden 50 feet by 
20 feet. 

Commercial fertilizers are applied differently; some- 
times in the drill, sometimes by broad casting, and some- 
times partly by broad casting and partly in the drill. 

Wood ashes are worth saving and may well be ap- 
plied to a garden in the same quantities or even in double 
the quantities that commercial fertilizers are. Un- 
leached wood ashes vary in composition, but in general 
they contain about 1 per cent, phosphorus, 5 per cent, 
potassium, and 30 per cent. lime. 

Lime is not ofenerallv res^arded as a fertilizer, but is 
used to sweeten sour soils. Garden soils are likelv to 
be sour, and an application of finely ground limestone, 
at the rate of about two tons per acre or 100 lbs. per 
1000 sq. ft. every two or three years, will keep a garden 
in a sweet condition. 



I 



HOME GAEDENS 17B 

169. Preparation of the Seed Bed. — Spring 
plowed or spaded garden soils should be harrowed or 
raked until perfectly smooth and level. If the garden 
bed is prepared with horse implements, it will be neces- 
sary to go over the ground again with a rake, to break 
up all the lumps, and to rake out the stones and rub- 
bish. Spring plowing, and in fact all spring work, 
should not be attempted until the soil is in a condi- 
tion in which it will easily cnimble. If the ground 
is plowed or worked when too wet, it will be impos- 
sible to make it into a good seed bed. 

170. Staking Out the Garden. — Staking out the 
garden, and locating the rows, becomes a simple and 
easy operation when an accurate plan has been made. 
With a yard stick or tape, locate the end stakes, two 
for each row, placing them at the distances apart which 
are indicated on the plan. The entire garden should be 
thus staked out before any planting is done, as this will 
allow one to check up all the distances and to change 
some stakes if necessary. Laths cut into three or four 
parts and sharpened at one end make excellent stakes. 
These should be driven firmlv into the soil and left, 
as they will greatly aid in all calculations of distance 
in planting the garden. 

171. Planting the Seeds. — After the end stakes 
are all accurately located, the planting of the first row 
of early vegetables may be started. This is done by 
stretching a garden line attached to two good stiff stakes 
between the two end stakes of the row to be planted, 
and fastening the line to the stakes. With a rake the 
soil below the line should be smoothed and fined, and 



174 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 

then with a sharp stick, garden trowel, or one corner 
of the hoe, a small trench, as deep as is required by 
the kind of seed to be planted, should be made. The 




MAKING DEEP DRILLS FOR THE LARGER SEEDS 

From Circular 198, University of Illinois 



garden line should now be moved out of the way and 

placed between the stakes of the next row to be planted. 

In order to get a good stand, the seeds should be 

dropped into the trench somewhat more thickly than 



HOME GAEDENS 175 

the mature plants are desired to stand. After the seeds 
are sown the trench should be covered with the fine 
soil with the hand, rake, or hoe, and firmed either with 
the foot or by tamping upon the soil with a rake or hoe. 
To secure good germination it is necessary that the soil 
be pressed closely around the seeds. 

172. Planting Succession Crops. — When one crop 
is harvested and a succession crop is to be planted in 
the same row, it is necessary to spade or deeply hoe 
that row and to get the soil again as smooth and fine 
as it was made in the first preparation of the seed 
bed. When this has been done, the garden line should 
be stretched once more between the stakes and the whole 
process of planting repeated just as it was at the time 
of the first planting. 

173. Cultivation of the Garden. — Cultivation 
should not be started until the rows of vegetables can 
be seen. This should be within a week or ten days 
after the planting, if a few radish seeds have been 
planted with all the seeds which genninate slowly. 
Hoeing between the rows and leaving the soil rough 
and lumpy cannot be called good cultivation even 
though the process does kill the weeds. Cultivation 
must not only kill weeds but also conserve the soil 
moisture and in order to do this, the soil must be worked 
into a very fine condition. Hoeing and subsequent 
raking will accomplish this. Cultivation becomes an 
easy matter if a two-wheeled hand cultivator is used. 
Another excellent implement for cultivation is a three- 
tooth hand cultivator which has a handle about as 
long as a rake. This does the combined work of both 



176 AJST INTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 

the hoe and the rake. If the seed bed is not compact, 
a good dust mulch may be established with a rake 
only, and if all the rows are far enough apart to insure 
easy use of the rake, the work may be done quickly. 

The garden should be cultivated as soon as expedient 
after every rain, and as often as weeds begin to ap- 
pear. A dust mulch should always be maintained; 
and if this is done, no sprinkling or irrigation w^ill be 
necessary unless there occurs a prolonged period of 
drought. 

Cultivation need not be deep in a garden. One 
to two inches is generally considered deep enough. 
Hilling up corn, potatoes, and similar crops should be 
avoided, and all cultivation should be as level as possible. 

174. Growing Seedlings to be Transplanted. — 
Young cabbage, tomato, celery, and other plants, which 
are usually transplanted into the garden, may be grown 
in green houses, hotbeds, cold-frames, and flats or 
shallow boxes 21/^ to 3^/2 inches deep. It is more con- 
venient to plant the seeds in flats than in the benches of 
the greenhouses or in the soil of the hotbed or cold- 
frames, but where they are so planted the rows should 
be three to six inches apart, the seeds but lightly cov- 
ered. When the young plants are ly^ to 2 inches high, 
they should be transplanted and given a little more 
room. Truck farmers usually plant the seeds thickly 
in flats and, after three or four weeks, transplant them 
to other flats where thev have more room. 

175. Transplanting Seedlings to Other Flats. — 
In the first flat, seeds may be sown very thickly, but 
when the young plants or seedlings are about an inch 



HOME GAKDE^S 



177 



and a half high, transplanting is essential. One small 
flat of such seedlings will furnish enough young plants 
to fill ten or twelve larger flats, with the seedlings placed 
in rows ahout one inch apart, and the plants one inch 
apart in the rows. This transplanting is a simple 
process. The larger flats are filled with the coarsely 
sifted soil. Depressions ahout one inch apart should 
be made in this soil, and, in the depressions, holes ahout 




FLAT OF JERSEY WAKEFIELD CABBAGE PLANTS ONE WEEK AFTER SHIFTING. 

— Circular 198, University of Illinois 

one inch apart should be made with a small dibble. 
Into these holes the small plants should be set and the 
soil slightly firmed around them. 

When the plants in these flats are 6 to 8 inches high 
the flats should be taken into the field, to transplant 
the plants into the places where they are to grow. 

176. Transplanting Seedlings into Flower Pots. 
Quite often the seedlings are transplanted a second 
time before they are set in the field. When four to 



178 AN INTEODUCTIO:^ TO AGKICULTURE 

six inches liigh, thej may be transplanted into flower 
pots, tin cans, or dirt bands or paper pots. From these 
they may be transplanted later into the field with very 
little injury to the root system. This second trans- 
planting, however, is more frequently done with young 
flowering plants than with vegetables. 

177. Transplanting Seedlings to the Garden. — 
The young plants should be transplanted into the garden 
late in the afternoon on a cloudy day. Holes a little 
deeper and larger than necessary to contain the roots 
should be dug. Considerable water should be added to 
each hole and if desired, a little compost or rich soil 
may be put in the bottom of the hole after the water 
has been soaked up. In all transplanting it is desir- 
able that the roots be disturbed as little as possible. 
The soil in the hotbed or flat, in which the young plants 
have been growing should be very moist when the plants 
are removed. The plants should be carefully removed 
and set a little deeper than they have been before ; the 
earth should be firmed about the roots and watered 
before the holes are completely filled up. The process 
of filling up the holes is usually finished by working a 
little fine soil about the plants to act as a mulch. The 
tops should be reduced by cutting off about one-half to 
offset the loss from the root system caused by the trans- 
planting. For a few days after transplanting the 
plants should be protected from the sun. 

If the seedlings are in fiower pots, in dirt bands, 
or in other individual retainers, it may be possible to 
transplant the seedling into the garden with the earth 
ball undisturbed about the roots. When this is done 



HOME GARDEXS 179 

the plants are not injured by transplanting and usually 
need no protection. 

178. Thinning. — Thinning is an essential and im- 
portant process. It is necessary because in order to 
secure a good stand, seeds are always sown a little more 
thickly than the plants are desired to stand. Lettuce, 
radishes, beets, and spinach, unless sown very thickly,, 
may safely be left in the soil until they reach an edible, 
size, and with these vegetables thinning becomes a 
frequently repeated process. All other garden vege- 
tables should be thinned early, before the plants are 
injured by crowding. The weakest plants should be 
pulled out and only the strongest, if evenly distant from 
one another, should be allowed to stand. It is a good 
practice to work a little soil into the holes caused by 
pulling out the plants. This may be done with the 
foot, hoe, or rake. After the holes are filled, the soil 
should also be firmed, as the pulling often loosens con- 
siderable soil. 

179. Fall Management. — About the middle of 
August some cover crop, rye or a mixture of rye and 
winter vetch, may profitably be sown in all parts of the 
garden wdiere no crops are growing. About the first of 
September these cover crops may also be sown between 
the rows of all growing crops, as no further cultivation 
will be necessary. Where this sowing is done, the en- 
tire garden will be covered late in September with a 
thick green crop. This cover crop may be plowed in 
during October or early in the spring. Growing cover 
crops and plowing them in will both lighten the soil 
and maintain the supply of humus. The seeds of the 



180 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGEICULTUKE 

cover crops should be sown by broadcasting and covered 
at the hist cultivation of the garden. 

Late in the fall every garden should be thoroughly 
cleaned up; and all weeds, old vines and other refuse 
matter should be gathered up and burned, as these often 
harbor insects and plant diseases. If the garden is to 
be plowed in the fall, manure should first be evenly 
spread over it ; if the garden has a cover crop growing 
upon it, much less manure is needed than when there 
is no cover crop to be plowed under. 

QUESTIONS AND PEOBLEMS 

1. What kind of soil has your garden ? What are the qual- 
ities of such soil ? 

2. JMake a plan of your garden as it was planted last year, 
as well as you can remember. Indicate the scale. 

3. Is the soil in your garden acid? 

4. Have commercial fertilizers been used on your garden? 
Name them. 

5. What small fruits are grown in your home garden? 

6. What is the cost of a dozen of tomato seedlings ? What 
would it cost to raise them? 

7. If a ton of slaked lime is put on an acre of land how 
much should be put on a garden 50' x 50' at the same rate? 

8. 1000 lbs. of a 5-S-lO-fertilizer is considered a heavy ap- 
plication. How many pounds should be used for a garden 
50' X 50' applying the fertilizer at the same rate ? 

9. For a 6" flower pot ? 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Home Vegetable Gardens, F. B. 255, 218. 
Beautifying the Home Grounds, F. B. 185. 
Home Fruit Garden, F. B. 154. 
Production of Onion Sets, F. B. 434. 



HOME GARDENS 181 

Canning Vegetables in the Home, F. B. 359, 521. 

Vegetable Garden, F. B. 818. 

The Small Vegetable Garden, F. B. 818. 

The Farm Garden in the North, F. B. 937. 

The City and Subin'ban Vegetable Garden, F. B. 936. 

Home Gardening in the South, F. B. 934. 



CHAPTEE XVIII 

PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS AND BY OTHER MEAl^S 

In propagating by seeds we produce new plants by 
putting into the ground parts of the parent plant, 
specially ordained by nature for this purpose, without 
injury to the parent. Another method of propagation 
is by cutting off a part of the parent plant and letting 
that grow separately. These removed parts are spoken 
of as cuttings, and the process is known as propagation 
bv means of cuttiiiii's. In other cases a part of the 
plant may take root and grow into a new plant with- 
out being entirely separated from the parent plant. 
This is done by bending down a branch and covering 
it with soil ; this process is called layering. In still 
other cases, plants may be propagated, or established 
plants entirely changed in many of their characteristics, 
by grafting or budding, 

1 80. Growth from Buds. — In these other methods 
of propagating plants, the development of the new 
plant comes from buds instead of seeds. Every live 
stem or branch has buds along its sides and one, at least, 
at the end. When the leaves fall, the bud at the base 
of each leaf remains, and the next spring it opens into 
new leaves. 

181. Cuttings. — To propagate a plant by cuttings, 
we remove a part of the stem that has at least one good 

182 



PEOPAGATIOX BY CUTTIXGS 183 

bnd. This piece is put in water, moist sand, or some 
moist light soil. After its roots are well started, it 
may be carefully removed to the place where we want 
the plant to grow. 

Soft-Wood CuU'mgs.— 'Md.nY plants are propagated 
by cuttings. A few, as the begonia, may be propagated 




STEM CUTTING CB SLIP OF COLEUS. — United States Farmers' Bulletin 408 

from a leaf, rooting either in water or in damp sand. 
But plants are more frequently developed from thrifty 
shoots. This is the common method with geranium, 
coleus, heliotrope, ivy, salvia, and others. The shoots 
or cuttings are removed from the plants just above 
a node or joint so that they are about four inches long 
and contain two or more nodes. The part of the last 
internode is then removed from the cutting so that the 
cutting ends just below a node. The new roots form 
at the node and if the part below is not removed, it 



184 AN i:n^teoductio^ to agriculture 

will decay and may interfere with the formation of 
new roots. All the leayes on the lower nodes should 
be removed and those at the top should be trimmed 
to reduce the evaporating surface. When these things 
have been done the cuttings are buried in moist sand 
so that the remaining leaves and just a little of the top 
project above the surface. The cuttings should be kept 
warm by artificial heat when necessary. 

After three or four weeks one of the cuttings should 
be carefullv removed and if the roots are about an 
inch or so long, the cuttings may be transplanted into 
small pots containing a rich, light soil, and from there 
into larger ones as the roots fill the pots. 

Ill the fall, practice making soft wood cuttings from some 
of the garden plants, and root, and pot these. This is a good 
way to acquire plants for the following spring. 

Hard-Wood Cuttings. — Hard- wood cuttings, such as 
currant, gooseberry, grape, and all fiowering shrubs, 
are generally made late in the fall after the leaves have 
fallen from the plants. Pieces of the one year old 
branches, containing two or three buds, are carefully 
cut from the plant. These are tied into small bunches 
and packed in green sawdust or moist sand in a cool 
cellar. They may be started in the house in February 
or March, or lie until the sj)ring, and then be planted 
in a light rich soiL When they are phuited they should 
be put deeply in the soil so that only one bud projects 
above the soil. They are generally put in the ground 
in a slanting position and the soil firmly pressed about 
them. 



PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS '185 

Practice making some hard-wood cuttings and keep them 
over the winter. In the spring plant them. 

Potatoes and sua^ar cane are nearly always 




propagated from cuttings. A potato is a 
swollen underground stem and when it is cut 
into pieces to plant, we use a piece of the stem 
or a cutting. 

182. Layering. 
In some plants 
buds may be made 
to root without be- 
ins: cut from the 

plant. A , slender layerixg 

branch or stem is 
bent down, then covered with soil. From the buds in 
this part of the stem, roots will grow. When they are 
well established the stem is cut off between the new 
roots and the old plant and we have a new plant. 

Try the experiment of layering such bushes as gooseberry^ 
raspberry, blackberry, and currant, and also grape vines. 

183. Grafting. — Grafting consists in setting into 
a tree a little twig from another tree, so that it be^ 
comes a new branch. The tree on which the graft 
is made is called the stock, and the twig set into it, 
is a scion. More commonly, however, grafts are made 
differently. In case of the apple, roots from one year 
old apple seedlings are cut up into as many pieces as 
possible, each three to five inches long. These pieces 
form the stocks. Then tips of branches or scions, of the 
apple which is being propagated, are grafted to these 



186 AN IXTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 





CiO"^ 



root pieces. These pieces of brandies vary in length. 
Sometimes the entire branch is nsed, and at other times, 
depending upon the length of the scion, it is cut into 
three or more pieces. The branches used must be from 
wood only one year old. The digging of the seedlings, 
and the cutting of the branches, is done late in the falL 
These are kept in moist sand in a cool cellar and some 

time during the winter the grafting 
is done. This 2)rocess of grafting 
to the roots is called root grafting. 

The stocks and the scions should be 
of the same thickness, to get a good 
graft. Just under the outer bark is a 
thin, soft layer called the cambium. 
It is the living and active, growing 
part of a stem and root. Care must 
be taken to have the cambium layer 
of the scion come in contact with the 
same layer of the stock, otherwise no 
union between the two is possible. 
After the scion and graft are fitted 
together, they are kept in place by 
wrapping the piece of grafting tape 
or twine around the region of contact 
of the two. The grafts are then 
stored away in damp sand in a cool 
cellar, and in the spring, when the 
soil is in a good condition, they are planted. 

Practice root grafting by cutting slender willow twigs into 
pieces, six to eight inches long, and grafting these to any 
roots of the same thickness, merely for practice. 





Root 



ROOT GRAFT. The 

courtesy of the Iowa 
State Department of 
Public Instruction. 



PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS 187 




CROSS SECTION OF 
STOCK AXD SCION. 

Vnitpd States Farm- 
ers' Bulletin 408. 



Cleft Grafting.— In cleft grafting the desired scions 
are removed late in the fall and stored during the 
winter in a cool, moist cellar. In the 
spring they are set into the stock 
where desired, as shown in the 
sketches. The freshly cut parts are 
then covered with grafting wax to 
keep out air and moisture. If the 
stock is large, often two scions are 
inserted into the stock at one point. 

184. The Necessity for Grafting. — Grafting is 
done to secure a better kind of fniit on a tree, to pre- 
serve and multiply a good variety, to replace lost 
branches, or to change the shape of a tree. AH fruit 
trees in America are grown either from buds or grafts, 

as thev do not come true to seed. 
The apple trees which nurseiy 
men sell are all grafted trees, 
developed from root grafts. 

185. Budding. — The pro- 
cess of budding consists in in- 
serting through the bark of a 
young tree a single bud cut from 
another tree. The desired bud 
is cut off with a sharp knife and 
is inserted in a T-shaped cleft 
made through the bark. The 
wound is then covered with 
BUDDING grafting tape, strips of cloth 

which have been saturated with melted wax. 

Peaches, oranges and lemons are usually propagated 




188 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 

by budding. All that part of the trees developing from 
the inserted bud partakes of the nature of the tree from 
which the bud or scion was cut. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Have you ever seen any one in your home propagate 
plants by cutting^ If so, describe how they did it. 

2. Why are cuttings generally rooted in sand rather than 
a rich soil? 

3. What trees can be propagated by cuttings ? 

4. In grafting why must the cambium layers of the scion 
and the stock come in contact with one another? 

5. How are carnations, roses, and begonias propagated? 

6. WTiy is the spring a good time to do the grafting? 

Earmers' Bidletins. 

Propagation of Plants, F. B. 157. 
Pruning, F. B. 181. 
Bridge Grafting, E. B. 710. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE ORCHARD 

^0 orchard should ever be located in a low place 
where water is liable to accumulate. The best slope 
for an orchard is north or northeast, and the best soil 
is deep, gravelly loam or clay loam. Varieties of fruit 
best adopted to the locality and to the soil should be 
selected. If the orchard is well cared for, and its trees 
are properly sprayed and pruned, it will be very produc- 
tive, and like the garden, will produce fruit which will 
surpass in value any of the common farm crops which 
could be grown on a similar area. 

1 86. Management of Orchards. — Orchard soils 
are managed in many different ways; unfortunately 
many of the home orchards are not managed at all, 
but left entirely to themselves. The system of manage- 
ment generally regarded the best is called the " Tillage- 
cover-crop-System." This system consists of cultivat- 
ing the soil during the summer to maintain a dust mulch 
and to keep it free from weeds ; then, some time in 
July or August, planting a fall crop or a winter crop^ 
such as rye, winter vetch, or a mixture of both of these. 
This cover crop is permitted to stay on the land until 
spring when it is plowed under. The value of the cover 
crop is that it hastens the maturity of the fruit crop in 

the fall, checks erosion during the winter, and in the 

189 



190 AN INTEODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTUKE 

spring adds much humus to the soil, which will make 
it light and retentive of much water. 

The tillage given the soil in the spring and summer 
not only checks weed growth and conserves the moisture, 
but also causes the formation of available raw plant food 
which is necessary for a good crop and good growth of 
the tree. 




PICKING AND PACKING APPLES 



187. Fruit and Leaf Buds. — All our fruit trees 
and also our small fruits usually bear but two kinds of 
buds. These are the fruit or flower buds which produce 
the fruit; and the leaf buds which produce branches 
and leaves. Fruit buds if opened will show a little 
immature blossom, and the leaf buds will show small 
leaves and a little, immatiire stem. The parts in the 



THE OKCHAKD 191 

buds are all snugly nestled together and protected from 
the weather and enemies bv the scales of the buds. 

The fruit or flower buds are usually thicker and 
rounder than the leaf buds, which are more sharply 
pointed. 

With a sharp knife cut lengthwise through a number of 
buds on some fruit tree and distinguish between the two 
kinds of buds. Note also the location of each. 

Formation of Fruit Buds. — Practically all our fruit 
trees develop their fruit on one year old buds ; that is, 
the fruit they bear is developed from buds which were 
formed in June of the previous year. When these buds 
are destroyed during the winter or in the early spring 
there will be no fruit the following summer. The two 
exceptions to this are the quince and the grape. These 
two plants develop their blossoms from the new wood 
formed in the spring from one year old branches. One 
cannot, therefore, find fruit buds on these plants during 
the winter. 

Location of Fruit Buds. — The apple, pear, European 
plum, cherry, currant, and gooseberry, always bear their 
fruits buds at the ends of very short, lateral branches 
called spurs. When these spurs are destroyed, there 
will be no fruit until the plants form new fruiting spurs. 
If conditions are favorable, these short spurs produce 
fruit every year. 

The peach, plum, apricot, and almond, bear their 
fruit buds at the ends of very short, lateral branches 
and not on spurs growing out from the sides. We some- 
times sav that the fruit buds are sessile, which means 



192 AN IIN^TRODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

without stalk. These branches bear fruit but one year ; 
however, these one year old branches bear not only fruit 
buds but leaf buds which in their turn form new 
branches, and on these new branches the fruit buds of 
the next year are borne. In this way the plants con- 
tinue to form fruit from year to year. 

The raspberry and blackberry bear their fruit buds 
on the ends of one year old stems. When fruit buds 
have formed, the stems stop growing and after they 
have borne fruit, these stems die. If the ends of one 
year old stems are cut in the fall, these plants can not 
form any fruit the next year. New stems form each 
year, which develop fruit the following year, and then 
die. 

1 88. Reasons for Pruning Fruit Trees. — Pruning 
is done to increase the vigor of the plant, to remove 
dead wood, to produce better fruit, to open the plant 
to light and air, to keep the plant within manageable 
shape and size, to facilitate in spraying, in gathering 
the fruit, and in cultivating, or to train the tree to some 
desired form. When young trees are set, it is usually 
best to prune away some of the branches, to allow for 
the loss of the roots destroyed in transplanting. 

189. When and How to Prune. — Slight pruning 
may be done whenever a plant needs it. In the north, 
orchards are usually pruned late in the winter or early 
in the spring before the sap begins to move. Bleed- 
ing is bad for a plant, as it is difficult for the wound 
to heal, and it produces conditions favorable for infec- 
tion. Grapes are usually pruned late in the fall. The 
old branches of blackberries and raspberries should be 



THE ORCHARD 



193 



cut out late in the summer to make more room for the 
new branches. If the new branches are cut back or 
headed-in when they are two or three feet high, 
they in their turn will develop more branches and 
thus the fruitfulness of the plant will be greatly in- 
creased. 

Heavy top pruning, in all fruit trees, leads toward 




WOUNDS MADK IN PRUNING 

(Left) —Wound improperly made. Do not leave stubs. (Center; — 
The proper place to make the cut. (Right)— The properly made wound 
heals more rapidly. — Wisconsin Bulletin 269. 

the formation of more woody growths, and thus lessens 
the formation of fruit buds. Top pruning, therefore, 
should always be done gradually a little each year. 

The heads of fruit trees should be kept open so that 
air may circulate freely through the trees. Wherever 
the branches get so thick as to prevent this, some should 
be removed. Water sprouts, since they grow up into the 
•center, should always be cut out. 



194 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 

Pruning during the growing season tends toward the 
formation of fruit buds^ while pruning in the dormant 
season induces woodv growths. 

All pruning should be done with some definite object 
in view, and whenever cuts of large branches are made, 

they should be as close to the main branch 
as possible and parallel with it. 

190. Dressing Wounds. — A few 
davs after larae branches have been cut 
from a tree^ the cuts should be dressed 
with paint. For all purposes one or two 
coats of white lead will suffice ; this closes 
the pores and keeps out all infection^ 
Coal tar paints mav also be used verv ef- 

J. » t' 

fectively. The paint will be more effec- 
tive the more smoothlv the cuts are made. 

191. Transplanting Fruit Trees. — 
To'^MAKE*"A^srop- ^^^ ^^^^ colclcr rcgious, that is in the north- 
ABovE ^ T' SOUND ^^'^^ statcs, carlv spring planting of fruit 
B u D — Courtesy [rccs is preferable. In the southern 

of the Neosho ^ 

Nurseries Co., Ne- statcs fall planting is morc successful. 

osho. Mo. . 

When trees are planted in the fall in the 
northern states they are often winter killed. This is 
usually due to the fact that the trees do not have time to 
establish themselves before the growing season is over. 
This causes an excessive drying out in the plant, which 
kills it. 

The hole should be dug twice as large as seems neces- 
sary and. the bottom filled with fine rich soil. The 
roots of the tree should not be allowed to dry out during 
planting. All injured roots should be removed, and 




THE ORCHARD 



105 



Second 



Cut 



the large one may be cut back slightly. The tree should 
be set a few inches deeper than it has formerly been 
growing. When the hole is dug and the roots are 
trimmed, the tree is ready to be planted. Set it in the 
hole wdth the large roots in the direction of the pre- 
vailing winds, or when 
on hilly land, up hill. 
Spread the roots out 
well and pack moist 
soil firmlv about the 

* 

roots, to be sure that 

all cavities around the ^ 

roots are filled. The 111 \ ^ nVbi Cut 

vouno" tree should have 

the top pruned back, in 

the same proportion as 

the roots have been 

in the transplanting. 

Usually one third of 

the top should be cut 

off. 

192. Apples. — An 
apple has nearly as 
much nutriment as a . ^=^«^i^« ^^««^ rraxches 

Splitting down often occurs in removing 

potato of the same '^^ge branches. There will be little chance 

. for trouble if the branches are cut away 

weight. Bv a proper as indicated in this drawing. — Wisconsin 

, . ' . . Bulletin 269. 

selection of varieties, a 

supply of apples may be had the year round. The ap- 
ple tree is started from the seed, but as it will not come 
true to seed, at the end of the first or second season, a 
scion of the desired variety is grafted on the seedling 




196 A:^^ INTEODUCTIOX to AGRICtTLTUEE 



root. Apple trees should be planted from 30 to 35 feet 
apart. 

Some of the most troublesome insects affecting the 
apple tree are the codling moth or apple worm, the 
curculio and scale insects. The two former can be con- 
trolled by spraying with arsenate of lead, just at the 





1. DIG THE HOLE TWICE AS 
LARGE AS SEEMS NECESSARY AND 
FILL IN THE BOTTOM WITH FINE 
RICH SOIL. 



2. PACK THE SOIL FIRMLY ABOUT 
THE ROOTS, TAKING CARE TO SPREAD 
THEM. 



time when the buds swell, two or three days after the 
petals of the blossoms fall, and then again two or three 
weeks later. Scale insects can be controlled by spray- 
ing with lime sulphur solution or kerosene emulsiouy^ 
during the late fall, after the leaves have fallen, and 
early in the spring before the buds swell. 

193. Pears. — Pear trees are usually planted more 



THE OECHARD 



^? 



191 



closely together than apple trees; from 18 to 24 feet 
is the common distance between pear trees. Pear trees 
are subject to many ills; one of the chief of these is 
blight, a fungous disease which causes the ends of the 
twio-s to turn black and die. It is controlled only by 
cutting out and burning the infected parts. The cut 





3. AFTER THE ROOTS ARE CARE- 
rULLY COVERED PRESS THE EARTH 
DOWN AS THE HOLE IS FILLED. 



4. AFTER THE TREE IS PLANTKD 
MULCH IT WITH LOOSE EARTH SO 
THAT THE MOISTURE MAV SOAK IN. 



should be made about a foot below the lower part of 
the infected part of the branch. The codling moth, 
scale insects, scab and slugs, affect the pear tree. These 
should be treated as thev are when they affect the apple 
trees. Slugs may be destroyed by spraying with kero- 
sene emulsion. 

194. Peaches. — Peach trees are usually planted 18 
to 21 feet apart. The peach tree is attacked by many 



198 AX INTEODUCTIOX TO AGEICULTURE 

pests and diseases. These pests are controlled just as 
described for apples ; the Bordeaux mixture must be 
just half as strong as is usually used. Peach yellows 
and peach leaf curl are two fungous diseases, peculiar to 
peach trees. Yellows can be controlled only by cutting 
out and burning the infected parts. Leaf curl can be 
controlled by spraying with diluted Bordeaux mixture. 

195. Cherries. — There are two common kinds of 
cherries, the sour, and the sweet. Sweet cherries are 
raised in California, Oregon^ Washington, along the 
eastern shores of Lakes Michigan, Huron, Erie, and 
Ontario, and in sections of the south. They bloom 
earlier than do the sour cherries, and they are, there- 
fore, only grown where there is little danger of early 
frosts. 

The sour cherries bloom later, are hardier, and suc- 
ceed fairly well in most parts of the United States. 
Cherry trees are commonly propagated by budding just 
as peach trees are. Cherry trees are planted from 20 
to 25 feet apart. Cherries are attacked by scale in- 
sects, by curculio, by plant lice, by rot, and by leaf 
spot. 

196. Plums. — Certain varieties of plums can be 
grown in most sections of the United States. They can 
be grown on a great variety of soils, and are usually 
regarded as very hardy and rugged plants. To secure 
good fertilization of the blossoms, it is advisable always 
to plant two or more varieties in the same orchard. 

Plum trees are commonly planted 15 to 20 ft. apart» 
Plums are attacked by scale insects, by curculio, and 
by brown-rot. The last can be controlled by spraying 



THE ORCHARD 199 

with a dilute Bordeaux mixture, half as strong as that 
used for spraying apples. 

197. Grapes. — Grapes are raised with as little 
trouble as is anv fruit, and they may be grown safely 
in all parts of the United States. Grape vines begin 
to bear in the third year, and sometimes a small crop 
may be gathered the second year. Grapes may safely 
be planted in the fall, even in the northern states^ be- 
cause the tops can be kept covered during the winter. 

Grape vines are usually planted 8 to 10 feet apart^ 
and are always trained to some support. The vines 
may be pruned any time during the late fall or early 
spring. Late spring pruning should be avoided, as the 
vines 'then bleed readily, and this bleeding, by making 
it difficult for the wounds to heal properly, is often a 
source of infection. It usually pays to spray grapes 
with Bordeaux mixture to control the fungous dis- 
eases. 

198. Small Fruits. — Blackberries, raspberries, and 
dewberries, are usually planted in rows 5 to 6 feet apart, 
with the plants Sy^ to 8 feet apart in the rows. These 
fruits are commonly attacked by fungous diseases, which 
can be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 

Gooseberries and currants may be safely grown in 
all sections of the United States. The plants are com- 
monly set in rows, 5 to 6 feet apart, with the plants 3 
to 4 feet apart in the rows. They should be sprayed 
with Bordeaux mixture containing some poison. Later 
in the season, if pests are troublesome, the plants should 
;be sprayed with white hellebore. 

199. Strawberries. — The habit of growth of the 



200 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

strawberry plant differs from that of all the other plants 
studied. When the strawberry plant has produced its 
fruit, it sends out runners which take root and produce' 
new plants. These new plants are used to plant a new 
berry field. Only the strongest and best plants should 
be selected. The field into which the new plants are 
to set should be ready before the plants are dug or re- 




Courtetiii of tlie Aeoaho Nurseries Co., Neosho. Mo. 

THE RIGHT AND WRONG WAY TO SET PLANTS 



A 
Too shallow 



B 

Too deep 



C 

Just right 



ceived from the nurseryman. Strawberry plants are 
commonly planted in rows, three to four feet apart with 
the plants about 18 inches apart in the row. 

Before the new plants are transplanted, the roots are 
generally trimmed back so that they will be about three 
inches long, and all the leaves, except two or three small 
ones, are removed. It usually pays to mulch straw- 



THE OKCHARD 201 

berry plants in the fall with light, strawy, and coarse 
manure, or with other strawy material. 

Some varieties of strawberry plants produce no pollen 
and are called imperfect plants. If only this kind i& 
planted, naturally, no berries will ever form. Other 
varieties are perfect and produce pollen as well as pistils. 
It is therefore necessary when a variety of imperfect 
plants is planted, that perfect varieties also are planted 
with them in alternate rows. 

The strawberry is the most important of all small 
fruits, and a small patch will usually supply more of 
the fruit than any family can use. 

QUESTIONS AND PKOBLEMS 

1. Do the farmers in your community have orchards? 
How do they manage them? 

2. Do they make it a regular practice to spray their or- 
chards? For what and with what? 

3. Examine some fruit trees in the early spring and try to 
distinguish between the fruit and leaf buds. 

4. What are the advantages of low headed fruit trees ? 

5. What small fruits are most easily raised ? 

6. What small fruits bring the best price per quart ? 

7. Why might a rainy time when the trees are in blossom 
prevent a good crop of fruit? 

8. At 12 cents each what will it cost for the plants to set 
an acre of blackberries? 

9. At 25 cents each what will it cost for the apple trees to 
plant an acre? 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Fruit Growing in Great Plains, B. P. I. Cir. 51, 5 cents. 
Fruits Recommended hy American Pomological Society, 15 
cents. 



202 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

Cultivation and Fertilization of Peach Orchards, 1902 Year- 
book, Sept., 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

The Home Fruit Garden, F. B. 154. 

The Apple, F. B. 113. 

Grapes, F. B. 471. 

Small Apple Orchard, F. B. 491. 

Use of Fruit as Food, F. B. 293. 

Home Mfg. of Grape Juice, F. B., 175. 

Grape Growing in the South, F. B., 118. 

Home Vineyard in the North, F. B. 156. 

Pears, F. B. 482. 

Peaches, F. B. 632, 631, 633. 

Strawberries, F. B. 198. 

Blackberry Culture, F. B. 643. 

Pruning, F. B. 181. 

Growing Fruit for Home Use in The Great Plains Area, F. 

B., 727. 
Dewberry Culture, F. B., 728. 
Everbearing Strawberries, F. B. 901. 
Baspberry Culture, F. B., 887. 
Groiring Peaches, F. B. 917, 



CHAPTER XX 

SPRAYING AND SPRAYING SOLUTIONS 

200. Importance of Spraying. — The ravages of 
insect pests and plant diseases confront us everywhere. 
Fruit and shade trees, shrubs, and garden plants are 
continually being destroyed. Often the entire work of 
a season is wasted because of failure to insure a crop 
against the attacks of pests and diseases. It is almost 
impossible to grow a good crop of fruit w^ithout spray- 
ing the trees, and the use of insecticides and fungicides 
are indispensable on all well managed farms. 

Every one engaged in the growing of fruits and vege- 
tables ought to learn to know^ the common insect pests- 
and diseases, and to be able to apply the right treat- 
ment to prevent their ravages. 

Because of lack of practice in preparing spraying 
solutions and in using them many people consider the 
task of spraying too difficult to undertake. • There is no 
better place than the school room in which to learn how 
to prepare all the common spraying mixtures, and how 
to apply them. 

201. Classes of Spraying Solutions. — All our 

spraying solutions may be divided into two classes, in- 

sedicides, and fungicides. The suffix '' cide " means 

to kill ; therefore insecticides are substances which kill 

insects, and fungicides are substances which kill fungi. 

203 



204 A^ IXTKODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

Insecticides are of two general kinds, the internal 
poisons, and the contact poisons. The latter kill the 
insect hy coming into contact with his body and closing 
its breathing pores. 




LITTLE SPRAYERS GIVE GOOD SERVICE 



202. Fungicides. — The two common fungicides are 
Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulpluir wash. For all 
common purposes the formula of common Bordeaux 
mixture is 4-4-50. For peach and plum trees a weaker 
solution is used, usually having a formula 2-2-50. 

Common Bordeaux Jf-Jf-50. — To make this solution, 
four pounds of sulphate are dissolved in 25 gallons of 
water, and four pounds of lime are slaked to make 25 



206 AX IXTEODUCTIOX TO AGEICULTURE 

gallons. The two are then mixed by pouring them into 
ii third barrel. The mixed solution should not leave a 
trace of copper on a piece of bright iron wire. If it 
does, more lime should be added to the mixture. 

Combined Bordeaux and Poison. — Jf-Jf-2-50. — 
Usually some poison such as arsenate of lead or Paris 
green is combined with the Bordeaux mixture. 

Two pounds of lead arsenate in the form of a paste 
may be added to 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. This 
gives a formula 4-4-2-50. The advantage gained by 
this combination is that we can spray against both fungi 
and insects in one operation. If desired, in place of the 
arsenate of lead, from 4 to 8 ounces of Paris green 
may be used. Less of the Paris green than of the 
arsenate of lead is used because the Paris green has 
a tendency to injure foliage. In spraying peach trees, 
and other plants having tender foliage, Bordeaux mix- 
ture and lead arsenate, the 2-2-2-50 mixture should be 
lUsed, and never should Paris green be combined with 
the Bordeaux mixture for these plants. 

Use of Bordeaux Mixture. — Bordeaux mixture is the 
standard remedy for spraying against scab, certain 
blights, mildews, rots, leaf spots, leaf curls, and other 
funo'ous diseases. 

Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur. — Self-boiled lime-sulphur 
solution, having a formula 8-8-50, is often used 
as a summer spray against scab and other fungous 
diseases ; however it is not as generally used as Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

Eight pounds of lime is slaked in a little water, and 
while the slaking is going on, eight pounds of sulphur 



SPKAYING SOLUTIONS 207 

is added. The mixture is allowed to boil a few minutes, 
then enough water is added to make 50 gallons. Then 
after the mixture is strained, it is ready for use. To 
this mixture lead arsenate may be added if desired. 

203. Insecticides. — The common poison insect- 
ticides for all cutting or biting insects are : — 



1. Arsenate of lead 3. Hellebore 

2. Paris green 4. Pyrethrum. 

The common contact insecticides are : — 

1. Kerosene emulsion 3. Miscible oils 

2. Lime-sulphur solution 4. Scalecide 

204. Controlling Biting Insects. — In order to kill 
biting or cutting insects it is necessary to put a poison 
upon their food. A list of these poisons has been given. 
We will now briefly describe each. 

Arsenate of Lead: — 

2 to 3 lbs. arsenate of lead paste 
50 gallons of water 

or 
1 to IV2 lbs. arsenate of lead powder 
50 gallons of water. 

Both the paste and the powder are sold on the market. 
A little water is added to the required amount of either 
the paste or the powder, to make first a thin paste, and 
then a thick solution. This solution is then added to 
the required amount of water. Arsenate of lead is 
more commonly used in combination with Bordeaux 
mixture, and the lime-sulphur when a summer spray is- 
needed. 



208 AX INTKODUCTIO]^ TO AGRICULTUEE 



Paris Green: — 

4 to 8 ounces pure Paris green 
1-2 lbs. stone lime. 
50 gallons of water 

The formula aiven above is a common one for Paris 
green. On plants with tender foliage, such as the 
peach, not more than 4 ounces of Paris green are used 
^ith 50 gallons of water, lest injury to the leaves re- 
sult. The lime is slaked separately and added to the 




MAKING BORDEAUX MIXTURE 

The two men pour together the diluted lime milk and the bluestone solu- 
tion into a barrel or spray tank and stir well. — United States Farmers' 
Bulletin 243. 

solution to prevent injury to the foliage. Paris green 
is cheaper than lead arsenate and therefore is still 
used extensively on potatoes. Paris green is sold on 
the market in a pure form, and very often, mixed with 
lime. One pound of the powder is often mixed with 
20 pounds of flour, and this mixture is then used to 
■dust plants. Used in this way, also, it is very efficient. 
-Paris green and lead arsenate are the best insecticides 



SPRAYING SOLUTIONS 



209 



for all insects such as the codling moth or apple worm, 
potato beetles, cabbage worms, curculio, tent caterpillar, 
fall web worms, and other leaf eating insects. 




Slingerland.- 



TOO LATE TO SPRAY 

Courtesy of the Iowa State Department of Public Instruction. 



205. Controlling Sucking Insects.— Sucking in- 
sects have beaks, or slender tubes, with which they 
pierce plant tissues and suck the juices from the plants. 
They must be killed by covering their bodies with a solu- 
tion, or a powder, which, on coming into contact with 
them, closes their little breathing pores ; they die of suf- 
focation as a result. Common sucking insects are plant 
lice, scale insects, and squash bugs. 

Kerosene Emulsion: — 

Soap, Vo pound. 
Rain water, 1 gallon 
Kerosene, 2 gallons. 



210 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGRICULTUKE 

To prepare kerosense emulsion tlie soap is cut into 
slices and dissolved in the soft water by boiling. The 
solution is then removed from the fire and the kerosene 
is addedj either by means of vigorous stirring, or by 
pumping back and forth with the spray pump. This 




YOUXG FRUITS READY TO SPRAY 

Slingerland. — Courtesy of the Iowa State Department of Public Instruction. 



process will form a creamy emulsion which may be kept 
indefinitely. 

The emulsion mixes readily with water. When 
ready to use it, add 8 to 10 gallons of water to 1 gallon 
of the emulsion. This will make an efficient spray for 
all sucking insects. 

Lime-Sulphur Solution. — There are two common 
kinds of lime-sulphur spraying solutions, and often 



sprayi:n^g solutions 211 

they are badly confused. One is more correctly called 
self-boiled lime sulphur. Its preparation we have de- 
scribed. In its preparation no artificial heat is used, 
as all required heat comes from the slaking of the lime ; 
the mixture of lime and sulphur is only allowed to 
boil a few minutes.' In this solution the sulphur does 
not dissolve to form soluble compounds but is held in 
suspension. 

The term lime-sulphur solution, as commonly used, 
refers not to self-boiled lime-sulphur, but to a mixture 
made by boiling together, with artificial heat, lime and 
sulphur. When this boiling is done, the sulphur, to- 
gether with the lime, forms a yellowish liquid which 
is called lime-sulphur solution. When this solution is 
made very strong, by using much sulphur and lime and 
little water, it is called concentrated lime-sulphur solu- 
tion; in this form it may be purchased. 

Lime-sulphur solution is one of the most efficient 
sprays for San Jose scale and for other scale insects. 
Used very dilutedly, it forms a good fungicide as al- 
ready described. 

One gallon of commercial lime-sulphur solution is 
often diluted with ten gallons of water as a dormant 
spray for scale insects. 

Spraying for scale with lime-sulphur is most effective 
when the solution is applied to the trees in the spring 
shortly before the buds swell. 

Scalecide. — Scalecide is a miscible oil, also used for 
San Jose scale and for other scale insects. It is a com- 
mercial product and one gallon of the oil is diluted with 
10 to 14 gallons of water. It should be used when the 



212 AN II^TRODUCTIO^ TO AGRICULTURE 

trees are not in leaf. It is very efficient, especially on 
badly infected trees, as the oil creeps readily beneath the 
scale of the insects. 

As it is first necessary for a physician to make an 
examination of a patient to decide what ails him before 
administering medicines, so it is essential for one to 
know the common insects and plant diseases, and the 
effects of plant diseases, before determining what spray 
to nse. Then, too, we know that certain insects, like 
the codling moth, are sure to make their appearance at 
certain times, and that c^.ertain plant diseases, like the 
potato blight, will invariably occur, if not prevented. 
This means that the proper preventives must be on the 
plants to safeguard them from the attacks of these 
enemies. These preventives protect plants just as 
vaccination or inoculation guard people against the at- 
tacks of certain diseases. Spraying should always be 
regarded as an investment rather than an expense. 
What does it cost to spray an acre of potatoes ? If the 
yield of sprayed potatoes is fifty bushels per acre more 
than that of unsprayed potatoes, surely the cost of 
spraying pays good dividends. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What spraying materials are used in your community? 

2. What is the cost of spraying materials in your com- 
munity? 

3. How much more expensive is it to buy Bordeaux mix- 
ture in a powder and to make 50 gallons of a 5-5-50 solution 
than to buy the lime and the copper sulphate to make the 
solution ? 

4. How much copper sulphate and how much lime must be 



SPRAYING SOLUTIONS 213 

used to fill a 14 quart pail with a 4-5-50 Bordeaux mixture? 

5. What are the most troublesome plant diseases in your 
community that can be prevented? What spraying material 
should be used to control each? 

6. What would it cost per bu. of potatoes to spray a po- 
tato field 3 times if the yield were 200 bushels per acre ? 

7. Why do Paris Green or other poisons on potato leaves 
not poison the potatoes' tubers in the ground ? 

8. What vegetables should not be sprayed with poisons? 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D, C. 

Codling Moth or Apple Worm, Yearbook, Sep., 460, 5 cents. 
Principal Injiwious Insects, Yearbook, Sep., 472, 5 cents. 
Spraying Orchard Insects, Yearbook, Sep., 480, 5 cents. 
Dust Preventives, Yearbook, Sep., 448, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Important Insecticides, P. B. 127. 
San Jose Scale and Its Control, P. B. 650. 
Fungicides, P. B. 243. 
Cutworms and their Control, F. B. 739. 
Control of Diseases and Pests of the Garden, P. B. 856. 
Insecticides, Spraying Apparatus and Insect Pests, P. B., 
908. 



CHAPTER XXI 

FEEDING ANIMALS 

All animals are kept for certain definite purposes, 
as the horse for labor, the cow for milk or beef, the hen 
for eggs. We give them food and care, in order that 
the resnlts, or products, may be bounteous and good. 
It is a wasteful practice to keep farm animals out 
of doors in cold winter weather. It is useless to ex- 
pect hens to lay eggs or cows to give milk, when they 
are suffering from cold, because this demands that a 
large proportion of the animal's food be used merely 
as fuel, to keep the animal warm. Animals that work 
hard require more food than idle animals. A cow that 
is producing a large quantity of milk needs more food 
than one that is producing little milk. He who can 
feed an animal with the most economical feeds for 
their greatest production is indeed a stock feeder. 

206. Composition of Feeding Stuffs. — The com- 
mon constituents of feeds, or feeding stuffs, are water, 
ash, protein, carbohydrates and fats. 

Water and Dry Matter. — All the grains and similar 

feeds contain from 8 to 12 per cent, water. The hays 

contain from 10 to 15 per cent water and succulent ox 

juicy feeds, like corn silage and roots, contain from 75 

to 90 per cent, water. The water contained in feeds 

has exactly the same use as that which the animals 

214 



FEEDII^G ANIMALS 



215 



drink. Since it would not be economy to pay a high 
price for a feed containing much water, analyses of 
feeds show the amounts of water they contain. If 100 
lbs. of a feed contain 12% water, the analysis would 
show that the amount of dry matter in it is 88%. Dry 
matter, thus spoken of, means the weight of a substance 



i^' 



••< 



T 




FARM-LIFE 

The pleasant occupation of bringing in fodder in the winter time makes 
farm life worth while — especially if the corn stalks are frozen in the 
ground. The silo will put an end to this kind of work. — Courtesy of the 
International Harvester Company. 



less the amount of water it contains. The following 
table is here inserted to show how the composition of 
feeds differs: 

Ash. — The material which is left after straw or any 
feeding stuff has been burned, is called ash- It con- 



216 A:Nr INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 



Pounds of Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in 100 

Pounds of a Few Feeds 



Feed 


Dry 
Matter 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fats 


Shelled corn 

Oats 


89.4 
89.6 
92.6 
90.2 
86.8 
9L9 
26.4 
9.1 


7.8 

8.8 

35.8 

30.2 

2.8 

10.5 

1.4 

1.0 


66.8 
49.2 
23.2 
32.0 
42.4 
42.5 
14.2 
5.5 


4.3 
4.3 


Cottonseed meal . . 

Linseed meal 

Timothy Hay .... 

Alfalfa hay 

♦Corn silage 

Mangels 


8.0 

6.9 

1.3 

.9 

.7 

.2 












sists mainly of lime, phos- 
phorus, and potassium 
compounds. The ash, or 
mineral substances of 
feeds, goes to form largely 
the bony structure of ani- 
mals, and enters into the 
composition of some of the 
tissues and secretions of 
the body. As ash is present 
usually in abundance in all 
our common feeding stuffs, 
little attention is given to 
it. Corn, however, is 
rather low in ash, and 
when it is fed extensively 
to young pigs, their bones 
may not properly develop. 

Well balanced rations made from a variety of feeding 

stuffs generally contain enough ash. 

Protein. — Protein is the name given to all sub- 



BUTTERMIV*^ 

-., - andShell ._„ 

JHE GREAT EGG MAKER 

Guaranteed analysjsi 

IfAT 4%-CARB0HYDRATE545^ 

ilflade from Dried ButtermilKf 



.'^ftf'i Oil Meal Corn Fe 



Ileal 



iWh, 



t^u uii Meal, ^..o' '••,,- 6= 
'tBTan.GroundOatS«'f, 



^?< Bran. Ground 

)t over 5% ^^ 

ILLINOIS 



eal and 
sole! 



FEEDING A^^BIALS 217 

stances in feeds which contain the element nitrogen^ 
Thev are therefore often called the nitro2;enous 
nutrients. The amount of protein in the different 
classes of feeds varies greatly. Protein is the most: 
expensive nutrient, and feeding stuffs, such as cotton- 
seed meal, containing much protein are always the most 
expensive. Protein forms the flesh of animals. It is 
also found abundantly in skin, blood, wool, hair, and 




PIGS OF THE SAME AGE 

Pig on the left was fed wheat and wheat ghiten ; weight, 55 lbs. Pig on 
the right was fed wheat and milk; weight, 165 lbs.'— Courted!/ of Hoard's 
Dairuman, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 



horn of animals. Milk and eggs are rich in protein. 
Much protein is required by all growing animals, and 
by animals which give us a product such as eggs and 
milk, which is rich in protein. 

Efficiency of Protein. — Pecent experiments with 
animals show that proteins differ in nutritive value. 
The proteins from the grains, and from their by- 
products are not as efficient in producing growth in 
young animals as are those proteins obtained from milk 
and from other animal products. Pigs and other 
animals, fed entirely on grains and other vegetable 



218 a:n intkoduction to ageiculture 

feeds, have, in experiments, made much less growth 
than pigs that have received a considerable quantity of 
their protein from skimmed milk or other animal 
products. These results show the great value of dairy 
by-products in raising young stock. 

It is also known that chickens will lay better if, in 
addition to their common feed, they are fed some 
animal product such as skimmed milk, buttermilk, or 
meat scraps. Skimmed milk and tankage are valuable 
also for fattening growing swine ; when these feeds are 




RESULT OF POOR AND GOOD PROTEIN 

The protein content was the same in the ration of both of these rats, but 
in one case (left) it was poor protein, and in the other good protein. 
There is much difference in the value of protein from different sources. — 
Courtesy of Hoard's Dairyman. 

used, in connection with vegetable feeds, quicker and 
cheaper gains are made. 

Carbohydrates. — The carbohydrates are substances 
such as starch, sugar, and cellulose. By far the greater 
part of all our plants are carbohydrates. The cellulose, 
which forms the cells and tissues of plants is not very 
digestible and is often spoken of as fiber. Straw, hay, 
hulls of seeds and similar substances contain much fiber 
which tends to make them less valuable than other feeds. 

The carbohydrates are primarily energy forming 



FEEDING AIS^IMALS 



219 



nutrients and are burned in the system to produce 
energy and heat. 

Fat. — The amount of fat in feeds varies greatly. 
Flaxseed contains 29% fat, peanuts 35.6% shelled com 
4.3%, and beets .1%. The nutritive value of fat is 
21/4 times as great as 
is a similar amount 
of carbohydrates and 
protein, for the pro- 
duction of energy 
and heat. There- 
fore, when in com- 
puting rations for 
animals, one wishes 



ALFALFA BALANCES 

THE CORN RATION 



KANS. EXP.- 14 PIGS- ISO DAYS 



CORN & WATER 

IN DRY LOT 

180 DAYS 




i^ K 




CORN & 

ALFALFA PASTIME 

80 DAYS 

COfW « 

ALFALFA HAY 

100 DAYS 



K«MS. 8UL 192 



©♦IVIJ 



ALFALFA 

Courtesy of the International Harvester 
Company 



to reduce the amount 
of fat to carbohvdrate 
equivalent, one mul- 
tiplies the amount of 
fat bv 2.25. The fat 
in feeding stuffs is 

either stored up in the body as fat, or is burned to fur- 
nish heat and enerffv. 

207. Feeding Stuff Laws. — Most states now havy 
a law regulating the sale of feeds. These laws gener- 
ally require that the amounts of nutrients and fiber, con- 
tained in concentrate feeding stuffs, be stamped upon 
the sacks or upon tags fastened to the sacks. These laws 
aim to prevent adulteration of feeding stuffs. It should 
be the business of every farmer and of every student 
of agriculture to know and to be able to interpret exactly 
the meaning of the terms used in these analyses. 



220 AX IXTRODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTURE 

The Wisconsin Feed Inspection Department recently re- 
ceived two samples of feed for analysis that had been oifered 
to farmers for $23,50 per ton. It looked good and smelled 
good, but on examination it was found to consist principally 
of peanut hulls with about 8 per cent oil, and contained 56 
per cent fiber. Such feeds contain fewer pounds of digestible 
nutrients than wheat straw, yet mighty few farmers would 
pay $23.50 per ton for wheat straw in carload lots. Such are 
the ways of the feed adulterator and thus are unreading 
farmers victimized. 

208. Digestible Nutrients in Feeding Stuffs. — 

The value of anv feed depends upon the amount of 
digestible nutrients it contains. Those not digestible 
are of no use to the animal. In buying feeds, we must) 
not be misled by statements showing their compositions, 
because a large portion of the nutrients are not di- 
gestible. The amount of digestible nutrients in feeds 
is only what one should consider. 

209. Classes of Feeding Stuffs. — All feed may be 
divided into two classes, called concentrates and rough- 
ages. Concentrates include all the grains, such as corn, 
oats, wheat, etc., and their milling by-products, such as 
bran, middlings, flour, etc. . . Concentrates are con- 
densed feeds containing large per cents of digestible 
nutrients and Small per cents of indigestible fiber. 
Roughages are coarse and bulky feeds such as haj^, si- 
lage, straw, roots, etc. . . They contain less digestible 
nutrients and more fiber than do the concentrates. 

210. A Ration. — A ration is all the feed given to 
an animal in one day, whether fed to it once, twice, or 
three times a day, or oftener. It is often necessary to 
calculate the weight of a ration. This is done by weigh- 



FEEDi:NrG ANIMALS 221 

ing the feed given an animal at each meal during the 
dav, and from these figures, determining the total 
weight of the feed for the day, or the weight of the 
ration. Knowing this weight it is a simple matter 
to determine the cost of a ration. If a dairy cow is 
fed in one day 

12 lbs. of clover hay 4 lbs. of groimd oats 

30 " " corn silage 2 " '' corn 

1 lb. of wheat bran 

what would he the cost of the ration if the hay is worth 
$10.00 per ton, the corn silage $3.50 per ton, the ground 
oats and the ground corn each $1.50 per 100 pounds, 
and the wheat hran $28.00 per ton ? 

12 

of $10.00 = $.06 



2000 

30 
2000 

4. 

100 
2 

100 
1 

2000 



of 3.50= .0525 

of 1.50= .06 

of 1.50= .03 

of 28.00= .014 



The cost of the ration is nearly twenty-two cents. 

Find out what the rations being fed to different farm ani- 
mals are. Then learn the market or farm value of the feeds 
being fed ; and determine the cost of some of the rations. 

From this find out the cost of feed for a week and for a 
month for certain farm animals. 



222 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

211. Nutritive Ratio of Feeding Stuffs. — The 

nutritive ratio shows how many parts of combined carbo- 
hydrates and fats there are in a feed in proportion to 
one part of protein. Since the nutritive vahie of the 
fat is 21/4 times that of the carbohydrates and the 
protein, in finding the nutritive ration, the amount of 
digestible fat must first be multiplied by 2.25. This 
result is then added to the amount of digestible carbo- 
hydrates to get the combined weight of the nutrients 
which contain no protein. This combined weight com- 
pared with the weight of the protein, gives the nutritive 
ratio. This ratio or comparison is generally written 
thus: 1:7, 1:12, etc., indicating that there is by weight 
one part digestible protein to seven or to twelve parts 
of digestible carbohydrates and fat combined. The 
formula for determining the nutritive ratio is: 

Di,jT. carbohydrates + (dig. fat X 2.25) _ 
digestible protein 

then 1 : x equals the nutritive ratio. 

One hundred pounds of corn contain 7.8 lbs. digestible pro- 
tein, 66.8 lbs. digestible carbohydrates, 4.3 lbs. digestible fat. 

Its nutritive ratio is 1 :9.8. The calculations for de- 
termining this nutritive ratio are given below. 

66.8 + (4.3 X 2.25) 75.475 



7.8 7.8 



==9.8 



Therefore the nutritive ratio of corn equals 1 :9.8. 

Determining the Nutritive Eatio of Rations. — In 
order to get the nutritive ratio of a ration, w^e must 



feedijStg animals 



223 



first consult a table showing the average amount of 
digestible nutrients. in feeds. (See Table 4 in the Ap- 
pendix.) Since in the table the composition of 100 
lbs. of each of the nutrients is given, we must find out 
how much of each of these nutrients there is in the 
amounts given in the ration. Below is calculated thQ 
nutritive ratio of a ration. The work also shows the 
amount of drv matter in the ration and the total amount 
of all the digestible nutrients. To get the total amount 
of all the digestible nutrients^ the total amount of fat 
in the ration is multiplied by 2.25 and the result is 
added to the total amount of protein and carbohydrates. 



Feeding Stuff 


Dry 
Matter 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 


lbs. 

10 Alfalfa hay . . 

30 Corn silage . . . 

3 Corn and coD 
meal 

2 Ground oats. . . 

1 Wheat bran. . . 


lbs. 
9.19 
7.92 

2,547 
1.76 

.881 


11)S. 

1.05 
.42 

.132 
.202 
.119 


lbs. 
4.05 
4.26 

1.80 

1.05 

.42 


lbs. 
.09 
.21 

.087 
.074 
.025 

.486 


lbs. 

5.30 

5.15 

2.13 

1.42 

.60 


Total 


22.298 


1.923 


11.58 


14.60 



11.58 + (.486 X 2.25) 12.6735 



= 6.6 



1.923 1.923 

Therefore the nutritive ratio equals 1 :6.6. 

Using the form of a table similar to the one above, find 
the nutritive ratio of some rations being fed to farm animals. 

Narrow and Wide Nutritive Ratios. — The nutritive 
ratio of timothy hay is 1 :16.2. That is, timothy hay 
has 16.2 times as much digestible carbohydrates and 
fats as it has protein. It is said to. have a wide nutri- 
tive ratio. Cottonseed meal has a nutritive ratio of 
1 :1.1. That is, it has almost as much digestible protein 
as it has digestible carbohydrates and fats. Therefore, 



224 A^ IJN^TEODUCTIO^ TO AGRICULTURE 

it is an example of a feed having a narrow nutritive 
ratio. The nutritive ratio of oats is 1 :6.7. This is a 
medium nutritive ratio. 

212. Balanced Rations. — A balanced ration is one 
which furnishes an animal the proper amount of each 
of the three digestible nutrients, protein, carbohydrate^ 
and fat, in the proper proportions, without excess of any 
nutrient. The proportion of the different nutrients 
is found by determining the nutritive ratio of the 
ration; and the amount of the nutrients is obtained 
by determining the total amount of all the digestible 
mitrients in the ration as described above. 

213. Feeding Standards. — Many very careful 
feeding experiments have been conducted in all parts 
of the United States by the different agricultural col- 
leges. From these experiments agricultural experts 
have found out what kinds of feeds, what amount of 
nutrients, and what nutritive ratios^ give the best re- 
sults. These results are published in agricultural 
bulletins and serve as general guides in feeding animals. 
These results are commonly termed feeding standards 
and an intelligent use of these standards will prove 
immensely to the advantage of every one who owns 
stock. 

Table 5 in the Appendix shows a feeding standard 
for dairy cows, used extensively in the Middle West. 
The following paragraph explains how the standard is 
used. 

Let us use, for example, the Haecker standards for 
feeding dairy cattle, and calculate the nutritive require- 
ments for a cow weighing 1200 lbs. and producing 30 



FEEDING ANIMALS 



225 



lbs. of 3.67o milk per dav. Let us also find out the 
nutritive ratio and the total amount of digestible 
nutrients required. 

Digestible Nutrients Required for a 1200 lb. Cow Pro- 
ducing 30 lbs. 3.6% Milk per Day 







Digestible 




Use 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


For maintenance 

(1200 lbs.) 
For production 

(30 lbs. of 3.6%. milk) 

Nutrients required 


.84 
1.50 

2.34 


8.40 
6.60 

15.00 


.12 

.57 

.69 

1 


15 + (.69X2.25) 16.5^ 


)25 

— 7.07 





2.34 



2.34 



Therefore the nutritive ratio =1:7 
The total digestible nutrients = 18.89 
16.5525 + 2.34 = 18.8925 

Calculations for the nutrient requirements for all 
dairy cattle may be made in the way illustrated above 
and the feeding standards given in the Appendix of 
this book may be used. There are other feeding 
standards which are used in the same way. Table 6, 
Appendix, is one adapted for all kinds of live stock. 

Find out the approximate weight of some dairy cows, and 
the amounts of milk they are producing, and the tests of the 
milk. From these data calculate the nutrients required, and 
the nutritive ratio of these nutrients, according to the 
Haecker standard given in the appendix. Table 5. 



226 AN INTEODUCTIOX TO AGEICULTURE 



214. Balancing Rations. — If an animal requires in 
a day ten pounds of digestible nutrients, having a nutri- 
tive ratio of 1 :7, the ration will be balanced if that 

animal is given a ration of 
suitable, palatable, and va- 
ried feeding stuffs containing 
ten pounds of digestible nu- 
trients which have a nutritive 
ratio of approximately 1 :7. 
In order to balance a ration 
for an animal, we must, 
therefore, first know what the 
requirements for that particu- 
lar animal are ; that is, we 
must know what to balance. 

As has been illustrated, our 
feedinc: standards are the 
guides which show us what 
the average animal requires 
in order to give the best re- 
sults without anv waste. 
To illustrate balancing a ration by an example, let 
us assume that we want to feed, according to the 
Haecker feeding standards, a balanced ration to a dairy 
cow weighing 1000 lbs. and producing 20 lbs. of 4% 
milk, per day. 

According to the Haecker feeding standard, the follow- 
ing nutrients will be required, and the nutritive ratio 
of these, as given below is 1 :6.9. 




.& .iiMii^- 



A GOOD SILO 



feedi:n^g aximals 



227 



.Nutrients Required 




Use 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


For maintenance 1000 lb. 

cow 


lbs. 

.70 
1.18 

1.88 


lbs. 

7.00 

4.80 

11.80 


lbs. 
.10 


For 20 lbs. 4% milk 

Nutrients required 


.42 
.52 



11.8 + (.52 X 2.25) 12.97 



= 6.9 



1.8S 



1.88 



Therefore the nutritive ratio is 1 : 6.9. 

The total amount of digestible nutrients = 1.88 + 
12.97 or 14.88 lbs. 

Xow, let us assume that we have the following feed- 
ing stuffs to feed the animal, and let us figure out a 
trial ration. 

Nutrients Provided 





Feed, Kind 


Dry 
Matter 


Digestible 


Amount 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fats 


lbs. 
10 

30 

3 

2 

2 


Alfalfa hay. . . 
Corn silage. . . 
Corn and cob 

meal 

Ground oats . . 
Wheat bran . . 

Nutrients pro- 
vided 

Nutrients re- 
quired 


lbs. 
9.19 

7.92 

2.54 
1.76 
1.76 


lbs. 
1.05 

.42 

.132 
.202 
.238 


lbs. 
4.05 

4.26 

1.80 
1.05 

.84 


lbs. 
.09 
.21 

.087 
.074 
.05 




23.17 


2.042 


12.00 


.511 




. . . 


1.88 ' 


11.80 


.52 



The nutrients provided in the trial ration are but 
slightly different from those required. There is, how- 



228 AN INTKODUCTIOI^r TO AGRICULTUKE 

ever, an excess of protein and of carbohydrates. By 
reducing the amount of wheat bran, and increasing the 
amount of corn silage, we can balance the ration a little 
better, as the work below shows. 





Nutrients 


Provided 




\ 




Feed, Kind 


Dry 

Matter 


Digestible 


Amount 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fats 


lbs. 
10 

§3 

3 

2 

V2 


Alfalfa hay . . 
Corn silage . . 
Corn and cob 

meal 

Ground oats . 
Wheat bran . 

Nutrients pro- 
vided 

Nutrients re- 
quired .... 


lbs. 
9.19 

8.71 

2.54 

1.76 

.44 


lbs. 
1.05 

.462 

.132 
.202 
.059 



1.905 


lbs. 
4.05 

4.686 

1.80 

1.05 

.21 


lbs. 
.09 

.231 

.087 
.074 
.012 




22.64 


11.796 


.494 




.... 


1.88 


11.80 


.52 



11.796 + (.494 X 2.25) 12.9075 

. = = 6.77 



1.905 



1.905 



Here the nutritive ratio of feed provided equals 1 : 6.77. 
The total amount of digestible nutrients is 14.81. 

1.905 + 12.9075 = 14.81 

Nutritive ratio in requirements = 1 :6.9. 

" " " feed provided = 1 :6.77 

Total digestible nutrients required = 14.85 

« « " in feed provided = 14.81 lbs. 

Although these do not exactly balance, they are so 
near, that we may safely say the ration is balanced. 

If a cow is fed in a day about one pound of hay and 
three pounds of silage for each one hundred pounds of 



FEEDmG AXIMALS 229 

live weight, and one pound of a good mixture of con- 
centrates for each three or four pounds of milk produced 
in a day, she will be fed a fairlv 2,ood ration. These di- 
rections aid in balancing a ration. 

Balancing rations often requires considerable work, but 
there is nothing- difficult about the work if the process is 
clearly understood. If time permits, balance rations for 
dairy cows, putting the final results in tabular outlines such 
as were used above. 

The feeding of farm animals is a very important sub- 
ject for farmers and project workers. One can get 
good advice on this subject from his county agricultural 
agent if there is one in his county. Another important 
source of information is the State Agricultural College 
of his state. Here experts are constantly working on 
the problem of better and cheaper rations, and these men 
are in touch with local conditions. Every one inter- 
ested in this subject should write to his State Agri- 
cultural College for a list of available bulletins. An- 
other important source of information is Henry and 
Morrison's ^' Eeeds and Feedins:." This book is con- 
sidered the standard w^ork on feeding every class of live 
stock. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Give a list of feeds that are adapted to growing animals. 

2. Give a list of feeds adapted to animals doing hard work; 
to those producing a product rich in protein. 

3. Determine the ration being fed to some home animal. 
Determine the cost of the ration, using local prices. 

4. Multiply the food ration in problem 3 by 365 and deter- 
mine the amount of the different feeds required for a year. 



230 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 

5. Determine the cost of the year's feed found in problem 
4 using current local prices. 

6. Determine the amount of total digestible nutrients in 
a bushel of oats and in a bushel of corn, and the value of one 
pound in each. 

7. If the bushel of oats sells for 50 cents and the bushel of 
corn for 75 cents, what is the cost of one pound of digestible 
nutrients in each? 

8. Calculate the nutritive ratios of the ration found in 
problem 3. 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Feeding for Beef Production, A. 1. Bui. 108, 10 cents. 
Maintenance Rations for Farm Animals, A. I. Bui. 143, 15 

cents. 
Influence of Type and Age in Feeding Cattle, A. I. Bui. 128, 

30 cents. 
Economic Feeding of Beef Cows, Dept. Bui. 615, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Feeding Farm Animals, F. B. 22. 

Making and Feeding Silage, F. B. 578. 

Nutritive Value of Food, F. B. 142. 

Feeding Dairy Cows, F. B. 743. 

Computing Rations hy Use of Energy Values, F. B. 346. 

The Feeding of Dairy Cows, F. B. 743. 

Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves, F. B. 777. 

Utilizing Fartn Wastes in Feeding Live Stock, F. B. 873. 

Homemade Silos, F. B. 855. 

The Self-Feeder for Swine, F. B. 906. 



CHAPTER XXII 



POULTRY 



215. Importance of the Poultry Industry. — 

Practicallv everv farmer in the United States owns 
some poultry: and there is no class of live stock so 
widely distributed. Because on the averao'e farm, the 
amount of money invested in poultry is so little, we 
often do not realize what a large industry the poultry 
business is in the United States. The sale of eggs 
and table fowl is about $300,000,000 per year. 

216. Benefits of Poultry Raising. — Every year 





SINGLE COMB FOUND ON MALES OF SOME VARIETIES 

University of Missouri College of Agriculture Circular 8. 



many more farmers are realizing that it pays to keep 
more poultry on their farms. Poultry raising requires 
little work. It makes a pleasant activity for the young 
people. The investment in poultry is usually small; 

231 



232 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 

little land is required, most of the feed is raised on tlie 
farm ; many waste products are utilized ; and, during a 
considerable part of the year, the flock lives largely 
on the litter about the barn and the feeding pens; 
and on the gleanings from the grain fields. Besides, 
large numbers of insects are eaten by the poultry as 
they range over the farm. Poultry products as eggs, 
broilers, and adult fowls of various kinds, are all easily 








COMB OF THE WYANDOTTE AND ROSE COMB LEOHORN 

Tlie rose comb has different characteristics, depending upon the breed. — 
University of Missouri, College of Agriculture, Circular 8. 



marketed, and the certainty of the market is another 
good feature of the business. 

217. Classes and Breeds of Chickens. — The four 
most common classes of chickens are the Mediterranean, 
the Asiatic, the American, and the English. 

A complete classification and description of poultry 
is given in '^ Standard of Perfection," the authoritative 
book on poultry. 



POULTEY 



233 



Q^aracteristics of the Mediterranean Class. — The 
different breeds comprising the Mediterranean class 
are comparatively small in size, and in weight. The 



Classes 



1. 

Mediterranean 
(Egg Breeds) 



2. 

Asiatic 
(Meat Breeds) 



Breeds 



1. Leghorns 



2. Minoreas 

3. Anconas 

1. Brahnias 

2. Cochins 

3. Langshans 



Varieties 
Single comb; White, Brown, 

Buff 
Rose comb; White, Brown, 

Buff 
Single comb; Black, White, 

Buff 

-Rose comb: Black, White 
fSingle comb; 
\Rose comlj; 

] Light, Dark 



American 
(General Pur- 
pose) 



4. 
English 
(General Pur- 
pose) 



/Buff, Black, Patridge, White 

/Black, White 

fBaired, White, Buff, Silver 
Penciled Columbian, Part- 
ridge 

White, Buff, Golden, Colum- 
bian 

Partridge, Silver Penciled 

3. Rhode Island f-^ , n- i i 

-r, J -i Rose comb. Single comb 

Reds ' ^ 



1. Plymouth 

Rocks 

2. Wyandottes 



1. Orpingtons 



2. Dorkings 



] Buff, Black, White, Blue 






White, Silver-gray, Colored 



birds are active, nervousj excellent foragers, and good 
layers. They make poor sitters, and are not often used 
to raise chicks. All the breeds lay white eggs, and have 
no feathers on their shanks or legs. There are both 
the single and the rose comb varieties. They are 
primarily raised for egg production. . 



234 AN I:^^TEODUCTIOI^^ TO AGKICULTUEE 



Characteristics of the Asiatic Class. — The breeds of 
the Asiatic class are easily distinguished from all other 





WHITE LEGHORN 



BRAHMA 



breeds of poultry by their size, and by the feathers they 
have on their shanks. The birds are very heavy, rather 





BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK 



WHITE WYANDOTTE 



inactive, poor foragers, and not nervous. They lay 
brown eggs, and make fair sitters and mothers. The 



POULTKY 



235 



Brahmas have pea combs ; the Cochins and Langshans 
have single combs. They are pi-imarily raised for 
table fowls. 

Cliaracteridics of the American Class. — The differ- 
ent breeds of poultry of the 
American class are the com- 
monest and most widely dis- 
tributed. Thev are of med- 
ium size, fatten fairly well 
for table use, and at the 
same time are i>ood layers. 
They are sometimes called 
the dual purpose breeds, a 
name which describes them 
very well. They have no 
feathers on their shanks. 
The birds are active, not 
nervous, fairly good forag- 
ers, and they make iiood sit- 
ters and mothers. They lay eggs having a light brown 
color. \ 

Characteristics of the English Class. — The birds of 
this class resemble those of the American class in size, 
form and utility. They are a distinct dual purpose 
fowl. 

218. Egg Production. — There is not the difference 
in egg production betw^een the breeds of the diiTerent 
classes of poultry, which there is commonly supposed 
to be. The difference is due entirely to the breeding; 
and the strain means much more than either breed or 
variety. 




A WHITE ORPINGTON 

CourteHij of the American Poul- 
try Journal 



236 AN IXTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 

In a recent Egg-Laying Contest at the Connecticut 
Agricultural College, 

350 Leghorns averaged 165 eggs in one year 

210 R. I. Reds " 158 '' '' " " 

170 Wyandottes " 169 " " " " 

170 Plymouth Rocks " 16U " '' " " 

100 Miscellaneous " 147 " '' '' " 

The thousand pullets in the contest averaged 162 eggs 
in one year. 

219. Making a Start With Poultry.— Most 
failures with poultry are undoubtedly due to lack of 
experience, and to lack of knowledge about poultry 
management. Rarely does any one who knows the 
business thoroughly, and loves the work, make a failure. 
Below are some general suggestions for the beginner : 

1. Start in the fall with 6 or 12 pullets from a good egg 

laying strain. 

2. Be sure that these pullets are free of disease and pests, 

and come from a healthy flock. 

3. Provide a warm house for the flock. 

4. Feed them properly. 

5. Keep accurate accounts. 

6. If successful with a small flock, gradually enlarge the 

number of birds. 

220. Locating the Poultry House. — The best loca- 
tion for a poultry house is on a slightly elevated site 
having a southern exposure. The site should have good 
drainage. Dampness and lack of sunshine are great 
detriments to the poultry raiser. The south side of 
an orchard, where the ground is slightly elevated, is 
undoubtedly one of the best places for the poultry 



POULTEY 



237 



A GOOD HEN HOME 



CONVENIENT 

COMFORTABLE 

LIGHT 

DRY 



WELL VENTILATED 

FREE FROM DRAFTS 

CLEAN 

FREE FROM VERMIN 




Courtesy of the International Harvester 
Company 



house. This gives sunlight, excellent range, and shade 
in the summer, 

221. Essentials of a Good Poultry House. — A 
good poultry house need not be expensive. It should 
be well ventilated, 
free from draughts, 
dry, and so built 
that much sunlight 
can enter it. Noth- 
ing produces more 
disease among poul- 
try than a damp, 
dark, and poorly 
ventilated house. 
The south side of 
the house sliould 

either be open, have two or three large windows, 
or several windows and a large ventilator. The open- 
ings may easily be covered with muslin during the cold 
winter nights. This provides good ventilation, and yet 
keeps the house fairly warm. The floor of the poultry 
house should be either of cement or of matched board 
flooring, laid upon a thick layer of crushed rock or 
cinders, to break the capillary rise of moisture. The 
house should be deep, ten feet or more, and wide enough 
to accommodate the flock comfortably. Usually about 
five square feet of floor space should be allowed for each 
bird. 

222. Styles of Poultry Houses. — There are very 
many styles or kinds of poultry houses, and, if correctly 
built, most of them are ver}^ satisfactory. The house 



238 AN INTKODUCTIO]^ TO AGEICULTURE 



having a shed roof, eight to nine feet high in the 
front and four and one-half to five feet high in the 
back, is the commonest style, and answers the purpose 
very well. Such a house is easily built, and the least 
expensive. 

223. Interior of a Good Poultry House. — A 
dropping board should extend across the back of the 

house 2 to 3 feet 




CONVENIENT ARRANGEMENT OF THE IN- 
TERIOR. — CniirtcKij of the Indiana Experi- 
ment /station. 



above the floor; and 
wide enough to ac- 
commodate the roosts. 
The roosts should be 
made out of 2'' x 2" 
lumber, allowing 10 
inches to each bird. 
A convenient place 
for the nests is under- 
neath the dropping 
board, at the outer 
edge, or at one side of the house. These nests should 
measure about 14 inches each way, and should be about 2 
feet above the floor. There should be one nest for about 
every four birds. Platforms along the sides of the house 
form an ideal place for feed and grit hoppers, and for 
water pans. These platforms should be about two feet 
above the floor. Such an arrangement of roosts, nests, 
dropping board and feeding platforms permits an en- 
tirely free floor space, which should be covered with 
dry, clean, coarse litter, preferably straw. In this litter 
the scratch feed may be scattered so that the birds 
will have to exercise to get it. In a house of this kind, 



POULTKY 



239 



it is possible to keep the birds closed up during all 
unpleasant weather. All the interior fixtures, dropping 
board, feeding platforms, nests, and roosts, should be 
so built that they may be removed easily when neces- 
sary. 

224. Feeding Laying Hens. — The feed for 
poultry may be divided into seven classes which are : — 

1. Grains or scratch feeds 4. Green feed. 

2. Mill products or mashes 5. Water 

3. Animal products such as meat scraps, 6. Lime and grit 

sour milk, buttermilk, etc. 7. Charcoal 

In the spring, summer, and fall, when the birds are 
on ample free range and are allowed to roam over the 
farm, they pick up a 
large part of all these 
necessary food ma- 
terials, and the prob- 
lem of feedinii' them 
becomes simple, if 
the number of birds 
is not very lar2:e. 
During these seasons 
of the year the birds 
get a large part of 
their protein from 
bugs, worms and in- 
sects. Gravel and 
sand forms their grit, and the green vegetation 
is the source of their green feed. In addition to this, 
they pick up considerable grain and much waste 
material. Nevertheless, they should be fed some srain. 




DEVICE FOR PROTECTING MILK OK WATER 

PAX. — Courtesy of the International Har- 
vester Company. 



240 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTUEE 

mostly in the evening, and it may be profitable to keep 
the dry mash hoppers open for them a short time each 
day, but this mash need contain very little meat meal. 
Skim milk and buttermilk may profitably be fed at 
all times if available. Fresh water, crushed oyster 
shells, and charcoal should be before them all the time. 
During the winter, and in the summer if the birds are 
confined, all their feed must be supplied to them if 
good results are expected. 

Grains. — The grains most commonly fed to poultry 
are whole or coarsely cracked corn, wheat, oats, and 
barley. In a recent International Egg Laying Contest 
equal parts of cracked corn and of whole wheat were 
the only grains fed to the hens during the entire year 
of the contest. The grains are commonly fed in litter 
about six inches deep, so that the hens will have to 
scratch for the feed. Usually about one quart of grain 
is fed both in the morning and in the evening to each 
twenty hens. Sometimes a little more is fed in the 
evening than in the morning. 

The Mash. — The mash is commonly fed dry from a 
self feeding hopper, as this is the least expensive way 
of feeding it. Occasionally, especially during the 
winter, hot wet mashes are fed to poultry. 

The simplest dry mash is one made of equal parts by 
weight of 

wheat bran flour middlings meat or 

ground oats corn meal beef scraps 

Unless a large flock is kept, it does not pay to make 
the mash, but one should buy a prepared mixed ftiash. 



POULTEY 



241 



many kinds of which are on the market. If moist 
mashes are fed, and if these are made with some form 
of milk, no meat or beef scraps need be fed. It has 
been proved by many recent experiments with laying 
hens, that some form of animal feed, to supply protein, 
is necessary for good egg production. 

Importance of Animal Protein. — At the Missouri 
Experiment Station three pens each of twenty-five lay- 
ing hens, were fed for one year, November 1, 1914, to 
October 31, 1915, exactly alike, with the exception that 
one pen was fed sour skim milk in pans and in the mash, 
another pen received beef scraps in the dry mash, and 
the third pen received neither milk or beef scraps. 
The average number of eggs produced per hen were : 



Skim milk pen 
131 eggs 



Beef scrap pen No animal feed pen 



107 eggs 



55 e 



toto^ 




135 ECGS 
BEEP SCRAP. 



133 EGOS 

SKIM Mll-K 



Courtex)/ of the Indiana Experiment Station. 

In a similar experiment at the Indiana Experiment 
Station, the following results were obtained : 

Beef scrap pen Skim milk pen No milk, no meat 



135 eggs per hen 133 eggs per hen 



pen 

30 eggs per hen 



242 A:N^ INTKODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTUKE 

These experiments show that some form of animal pro- 
tein is essential for good egg production. 

225. Broody Hens. — All broody hens, if not de- 
sired for sitting purposes, should be broken of their 
broodiness as soon as possible, in order to get them to 
lavins; ai^ain. This can be done by confinins^ them in 
slat or wire coops in the poultry yard during the warm 
weather, or in the poultry house during the winter. 
Such a coop should have a slat bottom and be raised 
above the ground, or the dropping board, so that the 
hen cannot find a warm place to brood. If such a hen 
is supplied with considerable water and feed, and if the 
coop is so placed that the hen in it can see the other 
chickens, she will get restless and soon forget her broodi- 
ness. After four or five days of this confinement she 
may be released, and the desire to brood will have left 
her. 

Experiments have shown that laying hens, confined 
in broody coops the first day they show symptoms of 
broodiness will start to lay again in ten days, from the 
time that they laid their last egg. If broody ten days, 
the interval between the last egg laid, and the first after 
the broodiness has been overcome, has been twenty-five 
days ; and the longer the hen is broody, the longer will 
be the time before she will lay again. 

226. Care of Eggs. — Infertile eggs keep much 
better and longer than fertile ones; for this reason the 
male birds should either be disposed of, or separated 
from the hens, after the breeding season is over. 

If the nests are kept clean and free of pests, most 
of the hens will lay in the poultry house, and the gather- 



- POULTRY 243 

ing of the eggs will be easily done. All eggs should be 
collected at least once a day, and immediately stored 
in a cool place. 

227. The Breeding Flock. — If one has a small 
flock, in which every hen is a strong, vigorous bird that 
has been a good layer, no special breeding flock or pen 
is necessary. Most poultry men, however, separate 
their best hens during the breeding season and confine 
them with choice male birds in a separate pen called the 
breeding pen. The best hens are those which have been 
the strongest, most active, the best foragers, and which 
have laid the most eggs during the year. Such hens 
are always busy. They rise early and go to roost late. 
High egg producers, in the breeds having yellow shanks, 
lose much of their yellow color and their shanks become 
whitish. The late molters, the hens with bright red 
and soft combs, and the hens with broad deep bodies, 
usually possess the characteristics of good laying hens. 
If the records of such hens are known, so much the 
better. Only the best should be used to produce eggs 
for hatching, if advancement and improvement of the 
flock is desired. Selecting any egg from any hen never 
developed a good egg laying or show strain of poultry. 

228. Pelvic Bone Test. — If the pelvic bones of a 
hen are found spread far enough apart so that two or 
three fingers may be placed between them, this is a fair 
indication that the hen is in a condition to lay. If these 
bones are so close together that only one finger may be 
placed between them, the hen is not in a laying condi- 
tion. Thin and flexible pelvic bones are characteristics 
of a good layer. 



244 AJST INTEODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTUKE 

229. Hatching Chicks. — There are, as you already 
know, two ways of hatching and brooding chicks, the 
natural and the artificial. In the natural way the chicks 
are hatched and raised by hens, and in the artificial way, 
incubators and brooders are used. The method to be 
used depends entirely upon the number of chicks one 
wishes to raise. If one wishes to hatch only a few sit- 
tings of eggs, the Rhode Island Reds are considered 
about the best hens for this purpose. 

Hatching Chicks with Hens. — From thirteen to fif- 
teen eggs usually make a sitting. These should be clean^ 
fresh eggs of a good shape and size. The hen should 
have a convenient and comfortable nest. The nest 
should be placed in a quiet and somewhat secluded place. 
Whole corn and water should either be before the hen all 
the time, or they should be given to her every day. ^o 
other food is necessary. At the end of six or seven days, 
the eggs should be candled. The infertile eggs will be 
clear, while the fertile or good ones will show dark 
streaks about the volks. 

The Hatch. — When the chicks are dry, it is safe to 
remove them from underneath the hen and put them in 
a little box or basket lined with a piece of some soft, 
warm material such as flannel. This box should be kept 
near a fire in a warm room ; and after all the eggs are 
hatched, the chicks may be given back to the mother 
hen and she should be well fed. In a day or two the 
hen and the chicks should be removed to the brooding 
coop. This coop should be clean, well disinfected, and 
should be kept continuously in a perfectly sanitary 
condition. 



POULTRY • 245 

230. Feeding Chicks. — No feed should be given to 
the chicks until they are two days old. The space about 
them, or the floor of the house where they are kept, 
should be covered with coarse sand or fine grit. The 
first food should consist of some stale bread or crackers, 
moistened in milk, but having had the milk squeezed out 
of them so that when it is fed the food is in a crumblv 
condition. Johnny cake moistened with milk and fed 
in this way is also a very good feed. So are hard boiled 
€ggs mixed with the bread. Water or sour milk, in 
saucers should be before the chicks all the time. For the 
first three or four days, after feeding is begun, chicks 
should be fed, as described, four or five times during 
each day and each feeding should consist only of such 
an amount as the chicks will clean up in about five to ten 
minutes' time. 

After the chicks have been fed a day or two with 
the moist food, they may be given in addition a little 
coarse wheat bran and some fine oatmeal in a drv con- 
dition. This dry food should be kept before them. 
Later, chick feed may be scattered in the litter, and a 
dry mash kept before the chicks. The moist feeding 
should gradually be diminished until the chicks are 
about six weeks old, when thev should have moist feed 
not more than once a dfiy. It pays well to keep fine grit 
and charcoal before the growing chicks, and if it is avail- 
able, skim milk, either sour or sweet. 

When the chicks are about eight weeks old, they may 
be given free range. They should always be fed well, 
with a good ration, so that they may ^row rapidly and 
be in a condition to start lavins: in the fall. 



246 A'N I:N^TR0DUCTI0N TO AGRICULTURE 

231. Poultry Diseases. — With poultry, as with all 
the other live stock, prevention of disease is always 
more important than curing disease. If the birds 
seem sick, and there are no external symptoms, it often 
pays to kill one, and to open it, in order to find out 
what troubled it. All birds which have died of 
sickness should be examined and then burned or 
buried so deeply that no animal can get at them. When 
the birds are inactive, that is stand around with their 
feathers ruffled up and their heads pulled back against 
their bodies, or if they are lame, or if their wings hang 
down, there is usually some disease in the flock, and the 
sick birds should be separated, to prevent further spread- 
ing of the malady. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What breeds of poultry are most common in your com- 
munity ? 

2. Which breed of poultry do you prefer ? Why ? 

3. Why would it be more just to sell eggs by the pound 
than by the dozen ? 

4. What are the yearly egg records of some good laying 
hens in your community ? 

5. How many eggs should a good laying hen lay in one 
year? 

6. Describe the interior arrangement of some good poultry 
house you have seen. 

7. Why should a poultry house be ventilated? 

8. What rations are being fed to poultry in your commun- 
ity? Criticize them. 

9. Figure the cost of feed for 25 hens for one year; get as- 
sistance at home. 

10. Assume that each hen lays 120 eggs a year and the aver- 



POULTEY 247 

age price of eggs is 25 cents, what is the return over feed in 
one year for 25 hens? 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Lessons on Poultry for Rural Schools, Bui. 464, 10 cents. 

Commercial Fattening of Poultry, Bui. 21, 10 cents. 

How to Kill and Bleed Market Poultry, Chem. Cir. 61, 5 

cents. 
System of Poultry Accounting, A. I. Cir. 176, 5 cents. 
Organization of Girls' Poultry Cluhs, A. I. Cir. 208, 5 cents. 
Preventing Disease in Poultry, Yearbook, Sep., 559, 5 centSo 
Winter Egg Production, Cir. 71, Office of The Sec, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Standard Varieties of Chickens, F. B. 51. 
Boys' and Girls' Poultry Club, F. B. 562. 
Poultry House Construction, F. B. 574. 
Hints to Poultry Raisers, F. B. 528. 
Incuhation and Brooding, F. B. 585, F. B. 624. 
Important Poultry Diseases, F. B. 530. 
Poultry Management, F. B. 287. 
Shipping Eggs hy Parcel Post, F. B. 594. 
A Simple Trap Nest, F. B. 682. 
Preserving Eggs in Water Glass, F. B. 103. 
Duck Raising, F. B. 697. 
Goose Raising, F. B. 767. 
Turkey Raising, F. B. 791. 
Mites and Lice on Poultry, F. B. 801. 
Standard Varieties of Chickens, F. B. 806, 898. 
Marketing Eggs hy Parcel Post, F. B. 830. 
Back-Yard Poultry Keeping, F. B. 889. 



i iSi>. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



CATTLE 



The animal industry is the most important branch of 
our agriculture. It is essential to a prosperous and 
permanent system of fanning. Without it the mainte- 
nance of our soil fertility is difficult and expensive. 
Everywhere live stock farms produce much larger crop 




Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture. 

yields than do strictly grain producing farms. Live 
stock converts much coarse feed having a low market 
value into very nutritious animal products essential to 
human health. There are on our farms about 63 mil- 
lion cattle and of these nearly 23 million are milch cows. 

248 



CATTLE 



249 



232. Advantages of Dairying. — Dairying helps 
maintain the fertility of the soil. Dairy farmers feed 
to the cattle not only all the coarse feed and much of the 
grain produced on the farms, but they also purchase and' 





REEF AXD DAIRY TOP TWINES 

Beef animals utilize feed for developing a broad and thickly fleshed back. 
A triangular shaped back indicates dairy type and mild production. — Wis- 
consin Bulletin 274. 

feed large amounts of rich concentrates, the manure of 
which contains much plant food. The cash returns from 
dairying continue through every month of the year and 
the farmers have a sure and constant source of revenue. 



250 AN mTROBUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

There is always a good market for dairy products. 
Dairying utilizes to the best advantage the farm laboi 
during the entire year, especially if most of the cows^ 
freshen in the fall. 

Dairying makes possible an ideal system of agri- 
culture. In such a system every farmer sells certain 
amounts of his crops such as wheat, corn, potatoes, cot- 
ton, etc., feeds the remainder of the crops and the rough- 




DAIRY TYPE. — Wisconsin Bulletin 274. 

age to his stock, and returns most of the removed plant 
food to the soil. Our four leading dairy states are Wis- 
consin, !N^ew York, Iowa and Minnesota. 

233- Types of Cattle. — Cattle are commonly classi- 
fied in two groups or classes, called types, as, the dairy 
and the beef type. 

234. The Dairy Type. — The dairy type, or class, 
(of cattle includes the breeds which have been developed 



CATTLE 



251 



primarily for milk production. The common dairy 
breeds of cattle are the 



Jersey 
Holstein 



Guernsey 
Ayrshire 



Brown Swiss 
Dutch Belted 



The dairy type is characterized by leanness and angu- 
larity ; and we commonly say that the cows show triple 
wedges, or have the '^ triple 
wedge conformation." These 
wedges are the side-wedge formed 
by lines along the back and along 
the underline of the bodv of the 
animal, the front-wedge, which is 
formed by lines from the top of 
the shoulders to the points of the 
shoulders, and the top-ivedge, 
which is formed by lines from the 
hips to the tops of the shoulders, 
or withers. The triple wedge 
gives the animal a large abdomi- 
nal and chest cavitv, shows that it 
is lean and angular, and also 
gives ample room for the attach- 
ment of a large udder. All three 
of these points are essential char- 
acteristics for an efficient dairy 
cow, that is for a cow that can eat 
large quantities of feed and 
change it not into flesh, but into milk. 

Jerseys. The Jerseys originated on the island of 
Jersey, one of the Channel Islands, near the coast of 




LOOK FOR THE WEDGES 

The body should be 
wedge shaped when viewed 
from the front and top of 
the withers, wider at the 
hip bones and at the floor 
of the chest than at the 
point of the withers. — ■ 
Wisconsin Bulletin 274. 



252 A^ INTKOJJUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 

France. The Jersey cattle are one of the most widely 
distributed breeds of dairv cattle, known everywhere 
for their rich milk, which has an average test of about 
5.4 per cent, butter fat. The Jerseys are the smallest of 
the common, dairy breeds, the mature cows weighing 
from 750 to 1000 pounds. The color of the breed varies 
greatly, much more than does that of any other breed ; 



.^:iMT^~ .^Mgtt|| 




1 '"■ ^' - 


f. .. 


> *■ - 


'.-•^ 



SOPHIE 19 OF HOOT) FARM, A CHAMPION JERSEY COW 

Year's record. 17,557 lbs. of milk; 999 lbs. of butterfal. — Courtesy of 
The De Laval Separator Company. 



it may be any shade of brown and even black, and any 
shade of yellow, fawn, and tan, or almost white. The 
muzzle is black or a dark lead color and is surrounded 
by a ring of light colored hair. Jerseys are persistent 
milkers, mature early, and are economical producers. 
The champion Jersey cow of the world, Sophies Agnes 
with a record of 16,212 pounds of milk, testing 6.168 
per cent, and containing 1000.07 pounds of butter fat. 
The Ilohfeins. The Hoi steins are more correctly 



CATTLE 



253 



called Holstein-Fresian cattle, because Holstein-Fresian 
is the name of the breed association in America. These 
cattle originated in Holland. 

In color this breed of cattle is black and white, some 
almost entirely white. The Ilolsteins are the largest of 
all the dairy breeds, the cows averaging from 1000 to 
1400 pounds. The cows are famous for the large 
quantity of milk they produce, which, however, is not 




DUCHESS SKYLARK ORMSBV, CHAMPION HOLSTEIX COW 

Year's record. 27.701.7 lbs. of milk; 1.205.091 lbs. of ' butter-fat. — 
Courtesu of Hie DcLnvnl tSeparator Comiiamj. 



nearly as rich as that of the Jerseys, averaging 3.5 per 
cent, butter fat. There is no breed of dairv cattle which 
has so many high producing cows as the Holstein- 
Fresian. The world's champion milk producing cow 
recentlv was a Holstein, Tillv Alcartra, which in one 
year produced 33428.8 pounds of milk containing 
1058.39 pounds of butter fat. The world's champion, 
butter fat producing cow, recently, was Duchess Sky- 



254 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGlUCULTUllE 

lark Ormsby, also a Holstein, which in one year pro- 
duced 27,7G1.7 pounds of milk containing 1205.09 
pounds of butter fat. 

What was the average butter fat test of these two cows ? 
What are the records of some of the highest producing 
Holsteins in your community ? 

Guernseys. The Guernsey cattle originated on the 
island of Guernsey, which like Jersey, is also one of the 




MURNE COWAN, CHAMPION GUERNSEY COW 

Year's record, 24,008 lbs of milk; 1,098.18 lbs. of butter-fat. — Courtesy 
of The DeLavul Seixirator Coutjianu. 

Channel Islands. Guernseys are larger than the Jer- 
seys,, though usually not as large as the Holsteins. The 
average weight of the cows is about 1000 pounds. In 
color they vary slightly, but the great majority are light 
yellow, or orange with white spots on the body and legs. 
The cows produce a rich milk having a slight yellow 
color, due to the deep yellow color of the butter fat. The 
average test of the milk is about 5 per cent. 



f 



CATTLE 



!55 



The cows have a gentle disposition, are good milkers, 
and produce more milk than do the Jerseys. Recently 
a champion Guernsey cow, produced in one year 24,008 
pounds of milk testing 4.57 per cent., and containing 
1098.18 pounds of butter fat. 

Ayrsliires, The Ayrshire is a native of Scotland, 
where it is very hardy, being accustomed to roam long 
distances for its feed. It is sprightly and active, and 
well adapted for hilly pastures and hard conditions. 




GARCLAUGH MAY MISCHIEF, CHAMPION AYRSHIRE CQW 

Year's record, 25.328.7 lbs. of milk; 897.87 lbs. of butter fat. — Courtesy 
of The DeLaval Sevaratur (Jo^iivanu. 



The color is usually red and white, the two colors not 
being mixed, but in patches. The Ayrshircs have horns 
turning upward and outward in a manner different from 
all other breeds. The cows are sliahtlv lariier than the 
Guernseys, produce more milk, but not as rich milk, the 
average test being 3.G to 4 per cent, butter-fat. A cham- 
pion Ayrshire cow, produced in one year 23,022 pounds 
of milk, testing 3.99 per cent., and containing 917.6 
pounds of butter fat. 



2m AN IXTKODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTUEE 

Broivn Swiss Cattle. The Brown Swiss cattle origi- 
nated in Switzerland. In size these cattle are next to 
the Ilolsteins, the cows averaging about 1200 pounds; 
they are slightly more fleshy than the other breeds of 
dairy cattle, and fur this reason the breed is sometimes 
classifled with the dual purpose breeds. The predomi- 
nating color is brown, but other colors or rather shades, 
such as light brown, and mouse color often occur. The 




CHAMPION RROWN SWISS COW, COLTiEOE RRAVURA 2D. 

Produced in one year 19.460.06 lbs. of milk, containing 998.005 lbs. of 
butter-fat. — Courtesy of The DeLaval Separator Company. 

nose, hoofs, and tongue are black. The breed is uni- 
versally knoAvn for the long life the cattle attain, many 
of them being in their prime of life when ten years old. 
The cows are good milkers, giving milk which has an 
average test of about 4 per cent, butter fat. A cham- 
pion Brown Swiss cow had a one year record of 19,460.6 
pounds of milk, testing 4.1 per cent., and containing 
798.16 pounds of butter fat. 

Dutch Belted Cattle. The breed of dairy cattle, 
known as Dutch Belted, is characterized by a broad, 



CATTLE 



257 



white belt encircling the body, while the remainder of 
the animal is black. This breed originated in Holland, 
and is not as widely distributed in America as are the 
other breeds. In size the Dutch Belted cattle resemble 
the Ayrshires, but are less fleshy. The cows are good 




AUNT MACRINA 931 AXD HER DAUGHTER, HAPPY THOUGHT 1540. CourteSy 

of The DeLaval Separator Compant/. 

milkers, giving milk having much the same qualities as 
Holstein milk. 

What breeds of dairy cattle are most common in your com- 
munity ? 

Which do you prefer? Why? 

235. Pure Bred Animals. — We commonly speak of 
an animal as being either pure bred, a grade animal or a 
scrub animal. A pure bred animal is one that is elig- 
ible to registry or record in its respective breed associa- 
tion. Only the offspring of registered animals of the 



258 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 

same breed are eligible to registry. When this record 
lias been made, the animal is a registered animal. 
When an animal has been thus registered in its breed 
association, a certificate of registration is issued and this 
certificate is the only official document to show that an 
animal is pure bred. 

A grade animal is one having a pure bred sire and a 
non-pure bred dam. A high grade animal is one having 
75 per cent, or more pure bred blood. 

An animal, neither of whose parents were pure bred^ 
is called a scrub animal. 

236. Cow Testing Associations. — Every state now 
has cow testing associations. Each association, com- 
posed of from 20 to 30 farmers, engages a man to figure 
for the entire year the amount of milk and butter fat 
each cow produces, the cost of feed and the value of the 
produce for each cow in each herd. These associations 
have greatly helped in weeding out poor cows and in 
making dairying more profitable. 

237. Judging Cattle. — The most accurate way of 
knowing the value of a cow is to weigh and test the milk 
she produces. In developing a herd of cattle, and in 
buying cattle, a good judge of them, is, of course, less 
apt to make mistakes than. one who is not familiar with 
the external characteristics of good cattle. 

The first essential in judging cattle is .to learn the 
name and the location of the various parts usually con- 
sidered in judging. The score card is a tabulation of 
these different parts ; it describes the ideal condition of 
each, and assigns to each some numerical value. This 
value shows the relative importance of the different 



CATTLE 



259 



Dairy Cattle Score Card 



SCALE OF POINTS 



General Appearance — 19 Points 

Weight, estimated. . . ,lbs., actual. . . .lbs 

Form, wedge shape as viewed from front, side 

and top 

Quality, hair fine, soft; skin mellow, loose, 

medium thickness, secretion yellow ; bone 

clean, fine 

Temperament, nervous, indicated by marked 

refinement in head, neck and f orequarters ; 

back bone prominent 

Condition, healthy, spare fleshed 

Head and Neck — 10 Points 

Muzzle, clean cut, mouth large, nostrils large, 
wide apart 

Eyes, large, bright, full 

Face, clear cut, medium length, quiet expres- 
sion, slightly dishing 

Forehead, broad, slightly dishing 

Ears, medium size, yellow inside, fine texture 

Neck, fine, medium length; throat clean; light 
dewlap 

FOREQUARTERS — 6 Points 

Shoidders, light, sloping, narrow at top 

Brisket, light 

Legs, straight, short; shank fine, feet sound. 

Body — 23 Points 

Chest, deep and moderately wide 

Ribs, deep, wide apart, well sprung 

Back, strong, prominent, spinal processes, 

wide apart . . 

Loin, broad, strong, with roomy coupling. . . . 
Barrel, deep, wide, very capacious 

Hindquarters — 42 Points 

Hips, far apart, prominent ; level with the back 

Rump, long, wide: straight or slightly rising; 
pelvis roomy 

Pin Bones, high, wide apart 

Tail, set high, long, tapering, heavy switch . . . 

Thighs, thin, long, wide apart; twist very open 

Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extending 
high and wide, large thigh ovals 

JJdder, broad, symmetrical, extending well for- 
ward, well up between the thighs, free 
from fleshiness, well held up, and quar- 
ters even in size 

Teats, good size, evenly placed 

Milk Veins, large, tortuous, branching, milk 
wells large, numerous 

Legs, straight, far apart; shank fine, feet 
sound 

Totnl 



Pos- 
sible 
Scoi-e 



5 
5 



6 
3 



2 
2 

1 
1 

1 



3 
1 
2 



5 

4 

3 
3 

8 



4 
1 
1 

4 



18 
4 

5 

2 

100 



Points Deficient 



Stu- 
dents 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 



260 AN INTEODUCTION Z^ ^^^MCUL tUKE 

parts. In judging an animal with a scoil ^urd, one 
makes deductions from the perfect score, equivalent to 
the degree to which he considers the animal being scored 
differs from the ideal animal, perfect in every point. It 
is necessary that one have in mind a mental image of a 
perfect animal. This may be derived partly from the 
description on the score card, partly from pictures and 
illustrations and partly from having seen good cattle. 
With this mental picture before one, judging becomes 
a process of comparison, and the score card is the 
guide to aid in the work. The score card is always 
used in learning how to judge cattle. After one has 
used this method long enough so that he will not 
overlook any of the important points, he will be able 
to judge a group of cattle fairly well without the score 
card. 

Placing Animals. — In any contest or in judging any 
group of animals, it is necessary to rank or place the 
animals, that is, to pick out the first, second and 'third 
best, etc., in order. In such work the score card, when 
used, is only regarded as a general guide. Because it 
is too laborious and takes too much time to score each 
animal in detail, a quicker way must be used. Conse- 
quently, all the animals to be judged, are looked over 
carefully, one or more times, and one is selected as the 
most perfect of the lot. Then the second best is picked 
out and so on, until all the animals are ranked. In all 
judging contests, where a number or group of some 
breed of animals is judged, the method just described 
is used, but usually reasons for placing or ranking the 
animals must be given. For instance, let us say there 



I CATTLE 261 

are ten cows, numbered from 1 to 10, before us, and we 
wish not only to pick out in order of their excellence, the 
best three, but to state our reasons for ranking the ani- 
mals as we do. The reasons w^e give to support our 
judgment must be brief, must be important, and must 
show the most striking differences between the animals. 
Let us assume that we rank cow 5, first, cow 1, second, 
and cow 6, third. Reasons for placing the animals as 
we do may be indicated as follows : 

First. 

We place cow 5 first because she has the largest barrel, 
the largest udder, and the largest milk veins and wells. 
Therefore, she appears to have the greatest capacity for feed, 
and for milk production, and the strongest circulatory sys- 
tem. 

Second. ' • 

We place cow 1 before cow 6 because she shows a better 
dairy conformation, is more wedge shaped, more angular, is 
larger, and has a greater capacity for feed. 

Third. 

We place cow 6 third, because she has a larger barrel, a 
better udder, and a better dairy temperament, than any of 
the remaining cows. Her skin is soft and pliable, and her 
milk veins are fairly well developed. 

It must be remembered that these reasons must never 
be mere comparisons which do not exist, nor an enumera- 
tion of some common minor points, but they must actu- 
ally show the most important differences between the 
cows which are being judged. 

238. How to Keep Records. — To keep milk and 
butter fat records of a herd, use a spring balance, sev- 



262 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 

eral pint glass jars, a small sampling dipper, some pre- 
serving tablets, a Babeock milk testing outfit, and a 
record sheet. Tack the record sheet up in a convenient 
place; weigh the milk and record the weight in the 
proper column after each milking. Put samples from 
two or three consecutive milkings into a glass jar which 
already contains a preserving tablet. If the milk is 
tested within a short time the preserving tablet is not 
needed. By means of these samples, test the milk once 
a week or once or twice a month, and determine the 
amount of butter fat produced. Finally, from these 
weekly or monthly records, compute the year's pro- 
duction. 

239. Feeding Dairy Cattle. — The feeding of dairy 
cattle has been fully discussed in Chapter XXI. Feed- 
ing standards for dairy cattle have been carefully formu- 
lated by experimentation. A farmer should learn to 
calculate the feed requirements for his cows and should 
use these standards as guides in formulating the best 
and cheapest rations for the cattle, making the best pos- 
sible use of the home grown feeds. Cows on pasture 
will give more milk if fed some concentrates. These 
concentrates increase the cost of producing the milk, 
but since the additional feed is usually well paid for in 
increased yields of milk, concentrates should be fed 
whenever a greater production is desired. Short pas- 
tures should be supplemented by good feeds such as soil- 
ing crops, silage, hay and concentrates, if good results 
are desired. In the winter and in the absence of any 
pasture, balanced rations should be fed, if good milk 
yields are expected. Many farmers consider the balanc- 



CATTLE 263 

■t 

ing of rations too difficult, but as has already been stated, 
the process is simple if clearly understood. 

240. Raising the Calf.— The calf is commonly al- 
lowed to run with the cow for the first two to four days 
of its life ; after that it is separated from the mother 
^nd put into a calf pen. The following method of feed- 
ing calves is used quite extensively: 

Calves under one month of age : 

21/2 to 41/2 lbs. of warm skim milk 3 times a day. 
From 1 to 2 months of age : 

4 to 6 lbs. of warm skim milk 3 times a day. 

1 to 2 handsful of a grain mixtur-Q fed dry from a box. 
Small amounts of mixed hay. 

From 2 to 4 months : 

6 to 10 lbs. of warm skim milk twice a day. 

2 to 3 handsful of a grain mixture. 

Silage leaves — small amount ; mixed hay kept before the 
calf all day. 
Prom 4 to 8 months : 

8 to 12 lbs. of warm skim milk twice a day. 

% to 1 lb. of a grain mixture. 
Silage — 4 to 8 lbs. per day. 

Clover or alfalfa hay kept before the calf all day. 
Thereafter : 

Skim milk if available. 

2 lbs. of a grain mixture per day. 

7 to 8 lbs. of silage. 

Clover or alfalfa hay kept before the calf all day. 

Calves are usually not turned out on pasture when 
young but are kept in the barn and well fed, and turned 
out for exercise only late in the afternoons and during 
the nights. The skim milk, if available, may be fed 
very profitably to calves until they are a year old. The 



264 AN IXTEODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTUEE 

amount of grain is gradually increased until the calves, 
by the time they are two years old^ are receiving not 
more than three pounds per day. 

241. Beef Cattle. — The industry of raising beef 
cattle to supply the markets with a good qualitv of 
meat, is rapidly increasing; and, as in dairying, the 
value of good stock and of good sires to produce choice, 
early maturing steers, is given much consideration. 
The four common breeds of beef cattle are : 



Shorthorns 
Herefords 



Ang-iis 
Galloway 




BEEF TYPE 

A Shorthorn. — Wisconsin Bulletin 274. 



242. The Beef Type. — We have in a general way 
already described the beef type of animal. It is impor- 
tant that beef cattle do differ in form from the dairy 
cattle. The general form of the beef animal is broad, 



CATTLE 



265 



deep, compact and smooth. Viewed from almost any 
point, the body should show a rectangular or paral- 
lelogram shape. The legs are short ; the loins, back and 
chest are thickly covered with flesh. The angularity, 
characteristic of the dairy type, does not appear. 
Shorthorns. — The Shorthorns are sometimes called 




HEREFORD COW 



Durhams. They are the most popular breed of beef 
cattle in the United States. They have short, pointed 
horns, and the color of the breed may be red, red and 
white, pure white, or roan. A roan color in cattle 
signifies the presence of Shorthorn blood. The Short- 
horns are the largest sized breed of beef cattle, the bulls 
attaining a weight of 1800 to 2200 pounds or more, and 



266 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGEICULTUEE 



the mature cows weighing from 1300 to 1600 pounds. 
The Shorthorns mature early, fatten readily, are fairly 
good grazers, and give more milk than the cows of the 
other beef breeds. 

Herefords. — The Hereford breed of beef cattle ranks 
second in popularity. As '^ rustlers '' on the range, and 
for sustaining their vitality under adverse conditions, 
the Hereford is surpassed by no breed of beef cattle. 




VICTOR, GRAND CHAMPION STEER 

An Aberdeen-Angus, considered the greatest steer ever shown at Ameri- 
can shows. — Courtesy of the American Aherdeen-Anyus Breeders' Asso- 
ciation. , 

The Herefords are easily distinguished from the other 
breeds of cattle by their white faces and heads, throats, 
dewlaps, and underlines; the remainder of the animal 
is red. The weight of the Hereford cattle is practically 
the same as that of the Shorthorn. The breed is some- 
times called White Face cattle. 

Angus, — The Angus cattle are commonly called 



CATTLE 



267 



Aberdeen-Angus, as this is the name of the breed asso- 
ciation. The cattle are solid black and have no horns. 
We therefore say they are " polled," meaning they are 
hornless. They are not considered as good grazers as 
the Herefords. They do, however, mature very early, 
and have a tendency to fatten readily while growing; 
this makes the breed jjopular for the production of baby 
beef. The Angus cattle are smoother, and they have a 
more cvlindrical bodv, than do the Herefords and Short- 
horns ; also the percentage of 
meat on them is larger than 
in the other breeds. 

GaUoivay. — The Galloway 
cattle are also solid black in 
color, and hornless or polled. 
Thev mav be distinguished 
from the Angus cattle by 
their long, curly, silky coat. 
The breed matures more 
slowly than the Angus and 
the Hereford. The Gallo- 
way cattle, however, are good grazers and '' rustlers,'^ 
and because, of their long, curly coat of hair, they are 
popular in the Northwest and in Canada. 

243. Dual Purpose Cattle. — The common breeds of 
cattle usually regarded as dual purpose breeds are : 




" PAT RVAN OF RED CLOUD " 
1st Galloway Bull — Courtesy 
of -the Amenenn Galloway Breed- 
ers' Association. 



Eed Poll 
Devon 



Milking Shortliorns 
Polled Durhams 



244. Fattening Beef Cattle. — Fattening beef cattle 
and getting them ready for market is an art, just as feed- 



268 AN I^'TRODUCTION TO AGKICU LTURE 

ing dairy cattle is. In many localities where dairying 
is not practicable, and where the farms are so located 
that the marketing of crops is too expensive, the grow- 
ing and fattening of beef cattle becomes important. Al- 
falfa hay, clover hay, and corn silage usually form the 
most economical roughages for fattening beef cattle. 
For concentrates, corn is most extensively used and this 
is supplemented with a little linseed or cottonseed meal. 
The feeding standard for fattening cattle. Table 6 Ap- 
pendix, aids in balancing rations for fattening growing 
steers. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Why should a dairy cow have a large stomach? 

2. What are the advantages of hornless cattle? Does it 
pay to dehorn cattle? 

3. What is gained by selling cream instead of beef from 
the farm? 

4. What are the most common breeds of cattle in your 
community ? 

5. What breed of cattle is best for milk production? Eor 
butter fat ? Why ? 

6. What are the advantages of winter dairying? 

7. What is gained by being able to judge cattle? 

8. What are a few rations actually being fed to dairy cattle 
in your community? 

9. Using current local prices, what is the cost of one or two 
of these rations ? 

10. What would the rations cost for one year? 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Breeds of Dairy Cattle, F. B. 106. 
Breeds of Beef Cattle, F. B. 612. 
The Dairy Herd, F. B. 55. 
The Foot and Mouth Disease, F. B. 666. 



CATTLE 269 

Some Essentials in Beef Production, F. B. 71. 

Milk Fever, F. B. 206. 

Dehorning Cattle, F. B. 350. 

Making and Feeding Silage, F. B. 578. 

Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt, F. B. 588. 

Feeding Dairy Cows, F. B. 743. 

The Feeding of Dairy Cows, F. B. 743, 

Breeds of Dairy Cattle, F. B. 893. 

Cattle Lice and How to Eradicate Them, F. B. 909. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



245. Milk as a Food. — Milk is one of the most 
perfect foods for man, because it contains in excellent 
proportions all the nutrients and mineral substances 
needed by the body. It contains casein and albumin to 



DAIRY PRODUCTS 



'4^ 



EACH DOT REPRESENTS 
$100,000 



I 


■^^^-v. 


^ 


: 


r 


^ 


_ • 1 


( 

".t^ 


^. ^ 








. r . . ^~N 


/ 






A 


\ 






V 


\- 








A 


T- 






— 2. 



Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 

form muscle and repair wastes, fat and sugar to produce 
heat and energy, and mineral salts to produce bones. 

246. Composition of Milk. — The average composi- 
tion of cow's milk is shown below : 

270 



MILK A^D ITS PKODUCTS 



271 



Water 87% Casein 2.6% 

Fat 4% Albumin 7% 

Milk sugar 5% Mineral matter 7% 

Fat. — The fat, commonly called butter fat, is sus- 
pended in the milk in the form of an emulsion ; the other 
ingredients, sugar, casein, albumin^ and mineral salts, 




MILK AS SEEN WITH COMPOUND MICROSCOPE 



are dissolved in the water. The amount of butter fat in 
milk is variable, usually ranging from 3 to C per cent. 

Milk Sugar. — Milk sugar is a carbohydrate, and as a 
food furnishes the body with fuel and energy. Milk 
suffar, or lactose, is usuallv seen in the form of a white 
powder, and is used and sold by druggists. It is not so 
sweet as ordinary sugar. 

Casein. — The principal protein in milk is casein. 
This is dissolved in the water and gives milk the white 
color. In the making of cheese the casein is coagulated 
and the whey obtained is, as you know, not white. 
Casein furnishes material for the growth and the repair 
of tissues. 

A Ibumin. — The other protein of milk is albumin. 
It occurs in much smaller quantities than does casein, 
and has the same function in nutrition. It is slowly 



272 A^ INTRODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

coagulated, when milk is heated, and it then rises and 
forms a thin, tough skin on the surface. 

Mineral Matter. — Since milk is the principal food 
of young animals, we see a reason for its content of 
mineral matter or ash ; this ash largely forms the bones 
of the young growing animals. The principal mineral 
compound is phosphate of lime. 

Colostrum. — The first milk given by a cow is called 
colostrum. It contains five or six times as much protein 
as does ordinary milk and should alwavs o-q to the calf. 
It is not good for ordinary purposes, as otlier milk is. 

247. The Souring of Milk. — The souring of milk is 
caused by bacteria. Some of these minute organisms 
are always present in milk, but many more come from 
the air, from milk pails, and from other utensils which 
are not kept absolutely clean. These bacteria act on 
the milk sugar and form an acid called lactic acid. 
When enough of this acid has accumulated, the casein 
coagulates, and the milk curdles. Milk is an especially 
good home for bacteria as it contains just the food and 
the moisture they need. When milk is at the right 
temperature, bacteria develop very fast. 

248. Production of Clean Milk. — To avoid souring 
of milk, every precaution for cleanliness must be taken, 
and immediately after milking, the milk must be cooled 
to a low temperature to check the growth of the bacteria. 
Milk pails, cans, and bottles, as soon as emptied, should 
be washed in scalding water, and aired in the sun. If 
they can be sterilized by steam, so much the better. No 
work which stirs up dust, such as pitching hay, should 
be done in the barn just before milking. 



MILK AXD ITS PRODUCTS 



273 



Take two samples of milk from the same milking. Allow 
one sample to cool naturally, and cool the other at once by 
placing it in ice water. After two or three hours set both 
samples in a cool place and note which one sours first. 

249. Importance of Butter Fat Test. — It is very 
important to know how much butter fat there is in milk. 
Everywhere, milk and cream are sold on a butter fat 




A BABCOCK TESTING OUTFIT. — CoKrfe.fu of The DeLaval Separator Company. 

basis. That is, a condensory or creamery pays a certain 
amount for milk containing four per cent, butter fat, 
and pays more or less for other milk, according to the 
amount of butter fat it contains. 

For example, if a condensery pays $2.00 for 100 pounds of 
4% milk, and three cents more or less for each additional or 
lacking 1/10% butter fat in the milk, then 100 pounds of 
3.5% milk would be worth $1.85, and 100 pounds of 5% milk 
would be worth $2.30. 

Like condenseries, creameries also buy milk and cream ac- 
cording to the amount of butter fat they contain, but their 
method is slightly different. They usually pay so much per 
pound of butter fat. The price is quite universally deter- 



274 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

mined by the wholesale price of butter. For example, when 
butter at Elgin, 111., is selling at wholesale for 35 cents per 
pound, a creamery which makes a practice of paying 2 
cents above Elgin for butter fat, will pay 37 cents for one 
pound of butter fat in milk or cream. 

All states and cities have ordinances Avhich, by law, 
regulate the minimum of butter fat contained in milk 
sold for household purposes. Three to 3.5 per cent, is 
commonly the minimum. 




Courtesy of The DeLaval Separator Company. 

READING THE TEST 

The dividers in the The dividers in the 

first position for reading second position for read- 
the test. ing the test. 

In order to know the producing value of a dairy cow, 
one must know not only how much milk she produces, 
but how much butter fat there is in her milk. The 
amount of butter fat in milk can readily be determined 
by the Babcock test (see page 356). 

250. The Milk or Babcock Test. — The Babcock 
testing outfit consists of a machine or tester, graduated 



MILK AND ITS PEODUCTS 



275 



milk test bottles, a pipette, or milk measuring tube, some 
acid, and an acid measure. The tester is a machine in 
which the test bottle can be whirled rapidly enough for 
all the butter fat to be brought to the top. Usually 
10 per cent, milk test bottles are used. These have long 
narrow necks and are graduated from 1 to 10 per cent. 
Since there are five small divisions in each per cent, 
each small division represents .2 per cent. The test is 
based upon 17.6 c.c. of milk which weighs approximately 
18 grams. The pipette, or milk measuring tube, has a 
mark near the upper end which shows how much milk to 
draw up and to use. The pipettes are stamped 17.6 c.c. 
which indicates the proper 
amount of milk. The milk, 
however, could be weighed in- 
stead of measured, and 18 
grams be used. Usually 17.5 
-c.c. is the correct volume. The 
acid used is stronii; or concen- 
trated sulphuric acid, having a 
specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.88. 
When a very accurate test is 
desired a water-bath must be 
provided in which the milk bot- 
tle may be kept for five min- 
utes before the test is read, in 
water having a temperature of 

125 to 140 degrees F. The complete directions for test- 
ing milk are given in Table 8 of the Appendix. 

Value of the Bahcock Test. — The Babcock test was 
invented in 1890 by Professor S. M. Babcock of the 




DR. BABCOCK 

Inventor of the Babcock 
Test. — Courtesy of the De- 
Laval Separator- Company. 



276 A'N I^TEODUCTIO^ TO AGKICULTUEE 

University of Wisconsin. Before its invention, milk 
was all bought and sold on the weight basis alone. The 
man who produced rich milk and the one who produced 
poor milk both received the same amount of money for it. 
Since the Babcock test has been invented, dairying has 
been placed upon a business-like basis. It gives both 
the producer and the purchaser a square deal. Its uni- 
versal use has brought about better cows, better milk, 
and most important of all, better dairying. 

251. Cream. — That part of the milk into which most 
of the butter fat finally gathers is called cream. It 
may contain 15 per cent to 50 per cent butter fat. 
State laws specify the minimum amount of butter fat in 
cream sold for household purposes. This varies from 
15 per cent to 20 per cent, but 18 per cent is the 
common minimum. Cream is lighter than the rest of 
the milk, and so the latter sinks to the bottom while the 
cream is pushed up. We say '' the cream rises,'' but in 
reality, it is pushed up. 

252. Butter. — When cream has been tumbled about 
for a half hour or more in a churn, the particles of fat 
unite closely into small grains, which separate from the 
water and other parts of the milk, and become what we 
call butter. The average composition of butter is : 

Butter fat 83% Salt 2% 

Water 14% Protein and ash 1% 

Butter is generally made from sour cream, one or 
more days old, because the flavor of such butter is con- 
sidered by most persons more desirable than that of 
butter made from sweet cream. The cream previous 



MILK AXD ITS PKODUCTS 277 

to churning is generally kept at a low temperature 40 to 
50 degrees Fahrenheit, and the churning is done at a 
temperature of 50 to 54 degrees in summer and 54 to 58 
or higher in the winter. Most persons demand that 
their butter be yellow, so butter is colored with annatto, 
a small quantity of which is added to the cream before 
churning. 

All states have laws specifying the minimum of but- 
ter fat and the maximum amount of water in butter. 
Usually 82 per cent is the minimum of butter fat. 

253. Cheese. — The same separation of casein, which 
is caused by the souring of milk, may be produced by 
adding rennet to milk. In cheese making, rennet is 
added to produce the curd. After the curd is prop- 
erly formed by the help of heat, it is carefully cut into 
small pieces. 

Heat is applied according to the kind of cheese which 
is being made, and according to the amount of acid 
desired. After the curd is formed, the whey is drawn 
off. This curd is then handled to make it solid and to 
drain off the surplus water. After this is done, the 
curd is run through a mill and cut into small pieces, is 
salted, put in forms or hoops, and pressed according to 
the kind of cheese which is being made. Finally, it 
is cured in a cool room for several weeks before it is 
ready for the market. The average composition of 
cheese is : 

Water 37% Casein 24% 

Fat 34% Ash 5%" 

Get a little rennet from a cheese factory. Add it to milk 
and observe the formation of curd. 



278 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 

The student should visit butter and cheese factories and 
observe the making of butter and cheese. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Describe some of the precautions required to produce 
clean milk? 

2. What is certified milk? Sanitary milk? Guaranteed 
milk? 

3. Why is skim milk a more valuable food than whey ? 

4. What is the cost per pound of digestible nutrients in 
milk selling at 8 cents a quart; in buttermilk at 5 cents a 
gallon and in skim milk at 5 cents a gallon? Figure 1 pound 
to a pint in each case and use Table 2 in the Appendix. 

5. How could milk from tubercular cattle be made safe 
for food? 

6. Are the cattle in your community tested for tubercu- 
losis? 

7. Why should milk be cooled on the farm before it is 
shipped ? 

8. If 100 lbs. of 4% milk is separated into cream testing 
SSy^% butter fat and into skim milk contaning no butter 
fat, what is the weight of the cream and the skim milk? 

9. If a milk condensery pays $2.10 for 100 lbs. of 4% milk 
and a creamery 45 cents a pound for butter fat and if 30 
cents is allowed for the value of the skim milk in 100 lbs. of 
milk, what is gained by selling the milk to the condensery? 

Bulletins for Sale by tlie Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Pasteurization of Milk, A. I. Cir. 197, 5 cents. 

Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk, A. I. Cir. 170, 5 cents. 

Improved Methods of Producing Good Market Milk, A. I. 

Cir. 158, 5 cents. 
Influence of Breed and Individuality on Composition of Milk, 

A. I. Buh 156, 5. cents. 
Influe7ice of Stage of Lactation on Composition of Milk, A. 

I. Bui. 155, 10 cents. 



MILK AND ITS PEODUCTS 279 

Influence of Acidity of Cream on Flavor of Butter, A. I. 

Bui. 114, 10 cents. 
Determination of Fat and Salt in Butter, A. I. Cir. 202, 5 

cents. 
Legal Standards for Dairy Products, A. I. Paper, 5 cents. 
Pasteurization of Milk, Bui. 240, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins 

Bacteria in MiR\ F. B. 490. 

Production of Clean Milk, F. B. 530, 602. 

A Simple Steam Sterilizer for Dairy Utensils, P. B. T48. 

Butter Making on the Farm, F. B. 241. 



CHAPTER XXV 



HORSES 



254. Importance of Horses. — The horse is still the 
most valuable beast of labor in the world and will nn- 
doubtedlv continue to be so on our farms. We mav 
think that the daj will come when we shall be able to 



HORSES 



EACH DOT REPRESENTS 
2.000 HEAD 




i 



DISTRIBUTION OF HORSES. — YearbooTc of the Department of Agriculture. 



get along without horses, but judging from the United 
States census reports, that dav is far distant, because 
there are still about 20 million horses and nearly 5 mil- 
lion mules on our farms 

280 



HOESES 



281 



255. History and Types of Horses. — The horses 
in the United States are all descendants from horses 
imported into America from Europe and Arabia. 

The types of horses generally recognized are classi- 
fied as: — 



draft 
coach 



roadster 
speed 



saddle 
ponies 



256. Speed Horses. — The Arabians^ the Thorough- 
bred, and the families of the American Trotter are the 




AMERICAN THOROUGHBRED TROTTER, " MAJOR KLENERT," NO. 42450 

Three years old; 16 hands high; record, 2.29%. Owned by Klenert 
Brothers, Portage, Wis. 

horses noted chiefly for speed. Thoroughbred is the 
name given to a distinct breed of English horses which 
have been bred for racing for many generations. The 
father of nearly all American families of trotters was 
'^ Imported Messenger," brought to this country from 



2S2 AX IXTEODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTUKE 



England in 1788. He was a Thoroughbred. Hamble- 
tonian, one of the most famous of American trotting 
sires, is descended from " Imported Messenger " and 
was foaled in 1829. Mambrino Chief, foaled in 1844, 
a great-grandson of ^' Imported Messenger," was the 
ancestor of many Blue Grass trotters. He was bred 
and developed in Kentucky. 

Characteristics of Speed Horses. — In general all the 
horses in the different breeds of speed horses, are tall, 
have rather long, delicate legs, small hoofs, long narrow 
bodies, and are therefore built for speed. 



foBe-HEAo, 




A GOOD PERCHERON. — Wisconsin Circvlar 17. 

257. Draft Horses.— The draft horses differ from 
the trotters and runners much as the beef breeds of 
cattle differ from the dairy breeds. Since draft horses 
are bred to pull heavy loads, and not to run races, nat- 
urally their form must be different from that of speed 
horses. Draft horses have a shorter and a more massive 



HORSES 



283 



body. Their legs are short and stout, and their hoofs 
are large. They are characterized by great weight and 
rather slow movements. Among the more important 
breeds of draft horses are the 



Percheron 
English Shire 



Clydesdale 
Belgian 



The Percheron. — The Percherons are the most popu- 
lar draft horses in America. The original stock was 
imported from France where it has been developed for 
many years. The common colors are gray and black 
and the horses commonly weigh from 1600 to 1800 
pounds. They have a comparatively small head, a mas- 
sive and low set body, and they are snappy and have a 
good action and style. 

The English Shire. — The English Shire horse, some- 
times merely called Shire, is one of the heaviest breeds, 
weic'liins: from 1800 
to 2400 pounds. The 
breed originated in 
England and is fair- 
ly well distributed 
throughout the United 
States. It may be of 
almost any color, al- 
though black, bay, and 
brown are the most 
common. It usually 
has a white spot on the 
forehead and as a rule has one or more white feet. The 
horses of the breed have lone: heavy hairs on the fetlock 




A CLYDESDALE. — Courtesy of the Amer- 
ican Clydesdale Breeders' Association. 



284 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 



called feather. In form tliej resemble the Percherons ; 
they are, however, more powerful, but they are lacking 
in action and style. 

The Clydesdale. — The color markings of the Clydes- 
dale greatly resemble those of the English Shire. They 
have a white face, and usually four white legs with con- 
siderable feather. Clydesdales w^eigh from 1600 to 
2000 pounds and are, therefore, lighter than English 
Shires. In color they are commonly bay, or roan. 
Clydesdales have a slightly longer body than do the other 
breeds of draft horses and are generally faster walkers. 
Clydesdales originated in Scotland. 

The Belgian. — The 
Belgian is perhaps the 
blockiest of all the 
breeds of draft horses. 
As the name implies, 
the breed orimnated in 
Belgium. The horses 
have a short, massive, 
thick set body, and 
weigh from 1700 to 
2400 pounds. The 
common colors are 
brown, chestnut, black, 
and they have no white markings or feathers on the 
legs. 

258. Coach Horses. — Coach horses combine the 
activity of the trotter with something of the strength of 
draft horses. Among this class of horses may be men- 
tioned the French coach horse, the German coach, and 




A GOOD BELGIAN. DUKE OP ELMWOOD, 
WINNER FOUR CHAMPIONSHIPS, 1017. 

Courtesy of H. Lpfehure d Sons, Fairfax, 
Iowa. 



HOKSES 285 

the Hackney. Automobiles are greatly lessening their 
popularity. 

259. Ponies. — Shetland ponies are the well-known 
sturdy beasts that, in this country, are used chiefly for 
children's pets. They endure almost any amount of 
hard usage and will do a great amount of work for 
their little masters and mistresses. In England they 
are much used in coal mines. Their native home is the 
Shetland Islands, north of Scotland. 

Welsh ponies are growing in popularity in America, 
and many are being imported, and some bred here. 
They also are children's pets. 

In the United States there are two connnon breeds 
of ponies, the Broncho, and the Northern Indian pony, 
both of which have descended from horses that escaped 
from the early Spanish explorers. They are the saddle 
horses of the Western cowboys and are good cavalry 
horses. They have great endurance. 

Learn the different breeds of horses in your locality. 
Somebody knows and will gladly tell you. 

260. Care of Horses. — Although horses appear to 
be strong and hardy, yet they are very easily lamed or 
made ill. They should be fed as regularly as possible, 
and should not be overfed, nor should the feed be 
changed suddenly. The horse has a small stomach, and 
therefore its feed should not be too bulky. Changing 
from old hay to new hay or grass is likely to cause indi- 
gestion, an ill which frequently becomes very serious. 

Overfeeding a horse that has been kept on short ra- 
tions has the same effect. Xew oats and corn should be 



286 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

fed with caution. t)usty hay is to be avoided, certainlj 
unless sprinkled. When a horse is heated it should 
not be fed grain ; it is safer and better to let the horse 
stand half an hour before feeding it. A little hay may 
be given, but some careful owners will not give even 
hay to a warm horse. Care should be exercised also not 
to give a heated horse too much cold water. 



mdles 

(EXCLUDING SPRING COLTS) 




DISTRIBUTION OF MULES. — Yearbook, Department of Agriculture. 



261. Rations for Work Horses. — The standard 
feeds for horses are oats, corn, bran, and timothy hay. 
How much of these to feed a horse depends upon the size 
or weight, and the amount of work the horse is doing. 
Naturally, the harder the horse works, the more food it 
should have. When the horse is idle, little more than a 
maintenance ration should be fed. The feeding stand- 
ard. Table 6, Appendix, aids in the economical feeding 
of horses. 



HORSES 287 

Formulate rations for farm horses using the general guide 
given above. Compare your rations with some being fed to 
horses. Use the Wolff-Lehman feeding standards, Table 6 in 
Appendix, and balance a ration for a horse. 

262. Care of Colts. — The foal should be kept with 
its dam in a clean and dry box stall the first three days. 
During the next week or two the dam and the colt should 
be given light exercise in a pasture or lot. When the 
colt is about three weeks old, it may be turned out on 
pasture with the dam if the weather is pleasant. 

When the colt is about six weeks old, it may be fed 
a little oats and wheat bran, and when about two months 
old, it should begin to eat a little hay. 

After the mare has begun to be worked again, the 
colt is much better off in the barn than it is following 
the dam about. If, on the days the dam is worked, 
the colt is given a little feed, and the mare is brought in 
to nurse the colt two or three times during the day, the 
young animal should thrive w^ell. 

At the age of from 5 to 6 months the colt should be 
weaned. Since the greatest and cheapest gains in 
growth of all animals can be made when they are young, 
it is economy to feed all young animals liberally. The 
colt should therefore be well fed even though it is on pas- 
ture. When one vear old, a colt should be "iven about 

3 pounds of oats, or an equivalent amount of grains per 
day. During the second year it should be getting from 

4 to 5 pounds, and when three years old, about 8 pounds 
should be fed. 

Good blue grass pasture is excellent for raising colts, 
as the grass is almost a balanced ration in itself. Bet- 



288 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 

ter growth, however, is always made when additional 
grain is fed to the growing animal. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What breed of horses predominate in your neighbor- 
hood ? 

2. Why is it difficult to tell to what breed our common 
farm horses belong? 

3. Give some reasons why a tractor will or will not take the 
place of a horse. 

4. Why is it better to raise a pure bred colt than a scrub? 

5. What are some rations being fed to horses in your com- 
munity ? 

6. What does it cost to. feed a horse a year? 

7. What is your favorite breed of horses ? 

8. What are growing colts being fed in your community? 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Classification of American Carriage Horses, A. I. Cir. 113, 

5 cents. 
Experiments on Horse Feeding, Exp. Sta. Bui. 125, 5 cents. 
Regeneration of the Morgan Horse, A. I. Cir. 163, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins 

Breaking and Training Colts, F. B. 667. 
Breeds of Draft Horses, F. B. 619. 
Principles of Horse Feeding, F. B. 170. 
Horseshoeing, F. B. 179. 
How to Select a Sound Horse, F. B. 779. 



CHAPTEE XXVI 



S\YINE AND SHEEP 



Iowa, Illinois, Xebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio 
and Kansas are our leading swine producing states. 
These states raise annually about 33,000,000 swine or 
almost 50 per cent, of all the swine raised in the United 
States. 



swine: 

iEXClUOiNC spring PICS' 



EACH DOT REPRESENTS 
5.000 HEAD 




DISTRIBUTION OF swiXE. — Yearbook, Department of Agriculture. 



263. Advantages of Raising Swine. — Swine will 
change corn and other feed into eatable meat in less 
time, and at less expense than perhaps any other farm 
animal. Much of this time they require very little 



289 



290 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGEICULTUKE 

care. They consume much waste material, and are a 
good side line on any farm. Usually a farmer can find 
no better market for his corn than his swine. 

There is a close relationship between the amount of 
swine raised and the production of corn in the different 
states. The states growing the most corn also raise the 
most swine. We often hear mentioned the " Swine Belt 
States/' and these states also form the corn belt. 







'^^^H 




-^Hv ^iBi^ 





POLAND-CHINA 



264. Types and Breeds of Swine. — Swine are com- 
monly classified into two types, the lard swine and the 
bacon swine. As in the case of every other animal we 
have studied, each type of swine is composed of several 
well known breeds. 

265. The Lard Breeds. — The lard type of swine 
greatly exceeds the bacon type in numbers in the United 
States, because the former are much better adapted to 
the corn belt states where most of the hogs are raised. 
The lard hogs are broader, deeper, and more compact 



SWINE AND SHEEP 



291 



than the bacon hogs. They fatten more readily than 
do the bacon hogs, and corn is better adapted to them 

as a feed. 

The leading breeds of bird swine are: 



Poland China 
Berkshire 



Duroc Jersey 
Chester White 



Hampshire 



Some authorities, however, include the Hampshire 
swine with the bacon type. 

Poland China.— One of the most popular breeds is 




BERKSHIRES 



the Poland China which originated in Ohio. The color 
is black and white, the w^hite being confined in good 
specimens to the four feet, the tip of the tail and the 
nose. They have drooping ears and a comparatively 
straight face. They are strictly a lard hog and it is not 
unusual for one to weigh two hundred and thirty pounds 
at six months of age. 

Berl'shire. — In color the Berkshire swine resemble 
the Poland China, being black and having the same 



292 AN INTEODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTURE 

six white points. This breed originated in England. 
They differ from the Poland China in that they have 
erect ears, and a short dished face. The body is not 
quite as wide nor as deep as that of the Poland China. 

Duroc Jersey. — In some parts of the United States 
the Duroc Jersey is a popular hog, and it is becoming 
more popular. The color varies from a reddish yellow to 
red, cherry red being the standard color. In form the 
Duroc Jersevs resemble the Poland China, and thev also 
have drooping ears. The Duroc Jersey breed is very 



P^ 


^m 




Sf^ 


.■ m 


■ 


Sjti 




.M^^^'ir 1 


Ik.: 


-21 

«- -it 


"1| 


1 


->%--« 


iM-mi 


^L>*« 




Wv-" 








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" " ■ "* 


• "* ' .- 




_ 


.• .:-,- -'saHKHiaB 





CHESTER WHITES 



hardy and prolific ; the sows make good mothers, and 
have good dispositions. 

Chester White. — The Chester White, as the name in- 
dicates, is white in color. They are slightly larger than 
any other breed of lard hogs. They have drooping ears, 
and straight faces and their body foim greatly resembles 
that of the Poland China. 

Hampshire. — The Hampshire is sometimes called the 
Thin Kind hog. This breed is easily distinguished from 
the other breeds of swine bv a characteristic white belt 
around the fore part of the body. The fore legs also are 
white, while the remainder of the body is black. They 



SWINE a:n'd sheep 



293 



have straight faces and erect ears. Their bodies are 
not as large nor as deep and broad as those of the other 
lard hogs, and they, therefore weigh less. 

266. The Bacon Breeds. — There are two common 
breeds of swine that may be termed purely bacon hogs. 
They are the Tamworth and the Large Yorkshire. The 
Tamworth is gaining a slight popularity in the United 
States, but this popularity is outside of the corn belt 




TAMWORTH SOW. GLEN LETTIE 

Woiglit at 3 years, 1.020 ijounds. — Coiirfe.su of Ja-s. Mackoy d- Son, Far- 
rai/ut, loua. 

states. The bodies of the bacon hogs are not as deep nor 
as broad as those of the lard ho2:s, and thev have con- 
siderablv longer less. Thev do not fatten as readily as 
the lard hogs, and they are raised primarily for bacon. 

Tamivorili. — The Tamworth originated in England. 
It has a red color, a long face, and large erect ears. It 
gives an excellent quality of bacon, but the hams are 
small when compared with those of the lard hogs. 



294 AX IXTEODUCTIOA^ TO AGEICULTURE' 



Large Yorkshires. — The breed known as Large York- 
shires also originated in England, where it is more 
popular than the Tamworth. The hogs of this breed are 
white, have erect ears and dished faces. Thev are verv 
large hogs but their bodies lack both breadth and 
depth. 

267. Care and Management of Swine. — The hog 
has been called the mortgage-lifter, and such it is in the 
great corn belt extending from Ohio to Kansas. The 





PORTABLE SWINE HOUSE. — Courtesy of the Northern Hemlock and Hard- 
wood Manufacturers' Association, Oshkosh, Wis. 



profit, however, depends on the supply of cheaply grown 
corn, and upon the ability of the hog to get considerable 
feed by grazing. Where the latter condition is want- 
ing, the profit is uncertain. There should be good graz- 
ing ground, clean water, and shade. The source of the 
drinking water supply should not be a filthy, wallowing 
place. The breeding sows should be kept apart from 



SWINE AND SHEEP 295 

the fattening herd. A few weeks before farrowing time 
the brood sows should be put in individual pens, or into 
small houses having separate yards or nms. These pens 
should face the south; they should be kept clean, and 
they should contain a good, clean, dry quality of bed- 
ding. Around the pen of the young pigs planks should 
extend out from the wall about 8 inches and raised six 
to eight inches from the floor to afford a protection for 
the pigs from their mother. The little pigs will soon 
learn to creep under these planks when the sow lies 
down. 

268. Feeding Growing Swine. — Many keepers of 
hogs raise a variety of forage crops, such as clover, oats 
and peas, rape, alfalfa, vetch and rye, cowpeas, etc. 
Some breeders have portable fences to control the feed- 
ing of these crops. Salt, wood ashes, and charcoal are 
supplied freely, and the grain feeds are fed as slops 
in troughs. It has been found to be much cheaper to 
raise hogs, weighing from two to three hundred pounds, 
than hogs, weighing five hundred pounds or more; the 
markets, also, prefer the lighter hogs. Experiments 
have shown that three or four pounds of good feed will 
add a pound to the weight of a hog under a hundred 
pounds, while more than five pounds of feed are re- 
quired to put a pound of weight on a hog weighing 
over three hundred pounds. The most money is made 
by fattening as rapidly as possible, because it is the 
young growing animal that can be fattened most cheaply. 
Good pigs should gain from one to one and a half 
pounds daily and be ready for the market when from 
8 to 10 months old. 



296 AN INTKODUCTIO^ TO AGKICULTUKE 

Skim milk and buttermilk are valuable feeds for 
growing swine, and when available they may take the 
place of the rich, nitrogenous concentrates, such as oil 
meal and tankage. One hundred pounds of skim milk 
are considered as valuable for feeding as a half bushel 
of corn. 

Young, growing pigs should not be fed too much corn, 
as corn is low in ash and protein, both of which are 
absolutely essential for the formation of bone, tissue, 
and muscle. When pigs are about four months old, no 
more than % of the ration should be corn. After the 
pigs have reached the age of three months, the amount 
of corn fed is gradually increased, so that at the end of 
the fattening period, when the pigs are eight months old, 
their ration contains from 60 to 95 per cent. corn. 
This is because corn is the best fattening feed and puts 
hogs into a good finished condition for the market. 
When growing pigs are on good pasture, the amount of 
grain fed to them may be considerably reduced. 

Value of Milk and Tanl-age. — All feeding experi- 
ments with growing swine show that the largest and 
cheapest gains are made when the corn fed to the pigs 
is supplemented with a feed rich in protein and ash, 
such as tankage, skim milk, buttermilk, alfalfa, and 
oil meal. 

In a recent experiment at the Indiana experiment 
station three lots of pigs, each pig averaging 79 pounds, 
were fed 70 days on three experimental rations with 
the results shown below : 

Lot 1. Fed nothing but corn. 

Average gain per pig for the 70 days was 20 pounds. 



SWINE AXD SHEEP 297 

Lot 2. Fed corn and tankage. 

Average gain per pig for the 70 days was 94 pounds. 
Lot 3. Fed corn and buttermilk. 

Average gain per pig for the 70 days was 128 pounds. 

In another experiment at the same station : 

Lot 1. Fed cornmeal 1 i)art and skim milk 1^/2 parts. 

Average gain per pig per day 2.02 lbs. for 60 days. 
Lot 2. Fed cornmeal 15 parts and tankage 1 part. 

Average gain per pig, per day 1.83 lbs. for 60 days. 

These experiments show the great value of dairy by- 
products and of tankage for growing pigs. 

269. Fattening Swine. — The seventh to tenth 
months of a pig's life are commonly considered the fat- 
tening stage. During this stage the amount of corn fed, 
as already mentioned, is o-reatlv increased until it forms 
from 75 to 95 per cent of the ration, and the amount of 
dairy by-products are generally reduced, until the 
preparation of the pigs is finished on nothing but grain 
and a little of some rich concentrate. 

Hogging-Down Corn. — ^Jany corn belt farmers turn 
the hogs, during the fattening stage, into a field of ma- 
ture corn and allow them to harvest the crop. Experi- 
ments show that this is one of the cheapest ways of 
feeding corn to swine. In this system temporary fences 
are often used, so that the hogs do not cover too large an 
area at any one time. 

270. Advantages of Raising Sheep. — On many 
f aiTns sheep may be raised with much profit. The sheep 
yield two valuable products, wool and meat, both of 
which are always in demand. The amount of wool pro- 
duced by a sheep for a year varies from 5 to 12 pounds 



298 AX IXTEODUCTIOX TO AGEICULTUEE 

according to the breed and the size of the animals. For 
this wool the farmer receives, on an average, from 25 to 
30 cents per pound. An average ewe will produce each 
year a crop of wool and a lamb. The lambs are gener- 
ally fattened in the fall and shipped to the market in 
November or December. They can feed and be well 
nourished, where cattle would find insufficient food. 



SHEEP 

(EXCLUDING LAMBS) 



EACH DOT REPRESENTS 
5.000 HEAD 



ki> 



n\. 



4 



■9 \ } 



-V 



Yearhool , Department of Afjriculture. 



They also eat a great variety of feeds. More than that, 
sheep are economical producers of meat, requiring less 
feed to make Gains in weight than do cattle. 

Sheep are most abundantly distributed in north- 
western and southwestern states. In these states, where 
there are still found many large sheep ranches, the sheep 
industry is very important. 

271. Types of Sheep. — Sheep are commonly di- 
vided into three types, or classes, according to the fine- 



SWIXE AND SHEEP 29^ 

ness and length of their wool. These types are the fine 
or short-wool, the medinm-wool, and the long-wool. 
Many years ago, sheep were kept almost entirely for 
their wool, and then, since the fine-wool was the best, 
naturally the fine-wool breeds of sheep excelled. 

Of recent years, however, some authorities divide 
sheep into two types, the fine-wool type, and the mutton 
type. In this classification the medium-wool breeds and 
the long-wool breeds form the mutton type of sheep, as 
these two types are raised primarily for mutton, the 
value of their wool being a secondary consideration. 
The fine-wool sheep are raised primarily for the wool 
they produce; with them the value of the mutton is 
secondary. 

272. Fine-Wool Sheep. — The fine-wool sheep 
usuallv have more or less numerous folds on their skin. 
These increase the wool surface, but the folds make 
shearing rather difficult. The wool is A'ery fine and 
heavy, averaging about 15 pounds to a clipping, and it 
readily forms masses. Often the oil or volk of wool is 
so abundant that it causes a black, greasy mass on the 
surface of the animal. In form these fine-wool sheep 
are more or less angular, resembling in this respect the 
dairy type of cattle. The three breeds of fine-wool 
sheep are : 

American Merino, Delaine Merino, Rambouillet Merino. 

The Merinos originated in Spain, and it is said that 
the robes of Roman emperors, two thousand years ago, 
were made from the fine-wool of the Merinos. 

American Merino. — The American ^ferinos have 



300 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

their entire body covered with folds or wrinkles. They 
are the smallest sheep, but they produce more and finer 
wool than anv other breed. The wool is about 2 inches 
long, and one animal yields, at one clipping, from 12 to 
21 pounds. The mature ewes weigh 100 pounds and 
the rams 150 pounds. 




A GOOD TYPE MEEINO RAM LAMB 

The Avrinkles over all parts of the body, the density of the fleece, and the 
covering of the face and legs are characteristic. — Farmers' Bulletin 576. 

Delaine Merinos. — • The Delaine Merinos have fewer 
folds or wrinkles than the American. Their wool, also, 
is a little coarser and longer. The ewes and rams are 
both slightly larger than the American Merinos. 

RamhouiUet Merinos. — The Rambouillet is a 
French breed, derived from Merinos imported from 



;S\V1XE AXD SHEEi* 301 

Spain. The Eambouillets are the largest of the fine- 
wool sheep, the ewes weighing about 150 pounds and the 
rams about 200 pounds. They produce less and slightly 
coarser wool than the other breeds of this class. The 
bodies of the Ilambouillets are generally smooth, but 
occasionally wrinkles are found on the necks. 

273. Medium- Wool-Sheep. — The medium-w^ool 
breeds of sheep form our common mutton sheep. Their 
wool is slightly longer and coarser than that of the fine- 
w^ool sheep, and the average shearing weighs about seven 
pounds. The average weight of the ewes varies from 
150 to 200 pounds, and that of the rams from 200 to 300 
pounds. All the breeds are hornless except the Dorset 
Horns. The common breeds of this class are : 

Southdown Hampshire Cheviot 

Shropshire Dorset Horn Suffolk 

Oxford 

All these breeds of sheep originated in England, ex- 
cept the Cheviot, which originated in Scotland. 

This class of sheep have broad, deep, compact bodies, 
and never have a wrinkled skin. In form they resemble 
the beef breeds of cattle. 

Southdoivns. — The Southdowns have dark gray faces 
and noses and their foreheads are covered with wool. 
They are hornless, small, and compact, being broad, 
deep, and smooth. They are the smallest of the Downs 
or medium-w^ool class. They are a highly specialized 
mutton breed, and in confonnation resemble the Angus 
cattle. Though they lack size, they are good feeders and 
have the best wool of anv breed in the medium-wool 
class. 



302 AX INTEODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTURE 

Shropshires. — The Shropshire sheep have dark 
browb, almost black faces, noses and legs. The wool 
extends well down their legs, their foreheads and their 
cheeks, and meets below their eyes. The breed is per- 
haps the most popnlar one in America. They are good 
breeders and feeders, and are slightly larger than the 
Southdowns, which they closely resemble in form. 




SOUTHDOWNS 

This pen of Southdown Wetliers "was awarded $1,000 in prizes at the 
Smithfield Show. — Courtesy of the American ■Southdown Breeders' Associa- 
tion. 



Hampshire. — The Hampshire sheep resemble the 
Shropshire in color, bnt are distingnished from them by 
the fact that the wool does not extend below the eyes as 
it does in the vShropshire. They also have longer faces, 
and their bodies are sliahtlv longer and lar2:er. 

Dorset Horns. — Both the male and the female Dorset 
Horn sheep have horns and this characteristic readily 
distingnishes them from the other breeds of sheep. 



SWINE a:n^d sheep 



303 



They have white faces and white legs^ and the wool does 
not extend down on their legs. They are very prolific, 
and are used for the production of hot-house lambs. In 
size they resemble tlie Shropshires. 

Oxford. — The Oxfords are the largest of the Down 
or medium-wool breeds of sheep. Their faces and legs 
are brown in color, and in this respect, they resemble the 




PURE-BRED SHROPSHIRE EWE. — Courtesy of the American Shropshire Reg- 
istry Association. 



Shropshire and Hampshire breeds. The wool does not 
extend down the face, and on the forehead it grows 
rather long, forming a slight topknot or tuft. Their 



wool is verv lons^. 



Cheviot. — Some authorities classify the Cheviot breed 
with the long-wool sheep. The Cheviot sheep have 
white faces and white legs free from wool. The wool is 
rather long and almost pure white. They are an active 



304 AX IXTIIODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTUKl- 

and hardy breed of sheep and well adapted to the colder 
and more hilly regions, resembling Scotland, where the 
breed orio^inated. In form and size thev resemble the 
Shropshire. 

Suffolk. — The Suffolk breed of sheep have long 
black faces, black woolless legs, and black ears. 
The wool extends only to the top of the head. 
Their body is not as deep as that of the other breeds 




DORSET HORN SHEEP. Medium-wooled breed. 



of this class and is slightly longer. The breed is. not 
very popular in America. 

274. Long-Wool Sheep. — The wool of the long- 
wool breeds of sheep is long and coarse, which makes it 
more open and fleecy than that of the other classes, and 
therefore it does not have a tendency to mat itself to- 
gether. These long-wool sheep do not have the deep, 
low and compact bodies which the sheep of the medium- 



swi:n^e and sheep 



305 



wool class have ; they have longer legs and are therefore, 
generally taller. The common breeds of this class are : 

Leicester, Cotswold, Lincoln. 

These three breeds all originated in England. All 
are hornless, and all have white faces, and white legs, 
free of wool. 




BORDER LEICESTER YEARLiXG EWE. — Covrtesy of the American Leicester 

Breeders' Association. 



Leicester. — The Leicester sheep are the smallest of 
the long-wool class. They can be distinguished from the 
Cotswold and the Lincoln sheep by the fact that no wool 
extends beyond the ears. 



306 A^^ Ii!^TRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE 

Cotswold. — The sheep of the Cotswold breed are 
slightly larger than the Leicester sheep, and are easily 
distinguished from them, and from the Lincoln sheep, 
by the long white curls or locks which hang over the 
foreheads and eves. 

Lincoln. — The Lincoln breed of sheep is the largest 
of any breed of sheep, the ewes often weighing 250 




COTSWOLD RAM. — Courtesy of Robert F. Hildebrand. 

pounds and the rams 300 pounds. Their wool is also 
the longest, averaging 12 inches, while that of the Cots- 
wold is 10 inches, and that of the Leicesters, 8 inches. 
The breed can be distinguished from the Cotswold and 
the Leicester sheep by a short foretop. 

275, Goats. — There are two common classes of goats 
called the Angora goat and the milk goat. In America 
the Angora goat is used mostly to clean up brush land 
for which it is well adapted. Its fleece is also a valuable 
product. Milk goats are raised in many European 
countries for the production of milk. 



SWIXE AND SHEEP 307 

276. Care of Sheep. — Sheep require comparatively 
little care ; an open shed in which they can take refuge 
on wet and stormy days is all that is absolutely neces- 
sary. If this is located on high ground, and some bed- 
ding is used, not even a floor is required, as the bedding, 
waste hav, and manure soon make a thick layer which 
protects the animals from dampness. The shed should 
be open and face the south. The hay should be fed 
from racks, and the grain, silage, and roots should be 
fed from feeding troughs. 

Sheep are usually sheared in the latter part of March 
or in April, depending upon the climate. In general, 
they should not be sheared until cold weather has passed 
in the spring. 

It is customary to dock all lambs, when they are two 
or three weeks old, as the woolly tail is of no use to the 
animal and is often a source of sickness due to the ac- 
cumulation of manure, which makes a good breeding 
place for germs. 

277. Care of Lambs. — Lambs should be weaned and 
separated from their mothers when they are from three 
and one-half to four months old. They should not be 
allowed to wean themselves, because this takes too long, 
and is too much of a drain upon the ewes. 

Lambs, while nursing, will begin to eat when quite 
young, usually when only two to three weeks old. Com- 
monly a " lamb creep " is provided for the lambs. This 
is an enclosure separated from the flock by a fence under 
which the lambs can creep but the mature animals can- 
not. In this enclosure, such feed as oats, bran, oil 
meal and corn meal are kept in small troughs, so that 



308 AN IxVTEODUCTION TO AGRICULTUrtE 

the lambs may enter the '' creep " and eat at will. This 
method of feeding gives them a good start and makes 
them ready for an early market. 

278. Fattening Sheep. — The fattening period for 
lambs and sheep varies from 10 to 14 weeks depending 
upon the size and condition of the animals. Some fat- 
tening rations commonly used are: 



1 


2 


3 


4 


Shelled corn 


Oats 


Mixed grain 


Corn 


Hay 


Hay 


Hay 


Hay 


Silage 


Silage 


Roots 





Experiments show that better and cheaper gains can 
be made when alfalfa or clover hav are fed, and some 
succulent feed such as corn silage, roots, or wet beet 
pulp. 

Sheep will eat and thrive on most weeds and grasses 
growing on the average farm. They kill the weeds by 
keeping them cut down to the ground. Sheep make a 
good medium through which a surplus of forage crops 
and grains can be marketed with profit. There is a 
greater profit on a small farm by feeding this surplus 
of feed to sheep than there is in selling it. From the 
standpoint of national economy, sheep should be re- 
garded as a farm necessity the same as poultry and 



swine. 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. In the spring of 1917 hogs were selling at $16.00 per 
100 lbs. and com was $20.00 per ton. If G lbs. of corn would 
add 1 lb. of live weight to a hog could a farmer profitably 
feed corn to hogs ? 



SWINE AND SHEEP 309 

2. What are the common breeds of swine in your com- 
munity? 

3. At $16.00 per 100 lbs. what is the value of a herd of 80 
hogs averaging 300 lbs.? 

4. What are some swine rations being fed in your com- 
munity ? 

5. What breeds of sheep have you seen in your community? 

6. What are arguments in favor of certain breeds of sheep 
in your community? 

T. What is a good ration for sheep? 

8. From what and how is woolen cloth made? 

9. Why are more sheep raised in Ohio than in Illinois? 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Management of Sheep on the Farm, Bui. 20, 10 cents. 
Pasture System for Range Sheep Forest, Cir. 178, 5 cents. 
Swine Judging for Pig-Cluh Members, Cir. 83, Office of Sec, 

5 cents. 
Lessons on Pork Production for Rural Schools, Dept. BuL 

Q4:6, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins 

Pig Management, F. B. 205. 

Hog Houses, F. B. 438. 

Boys' Pig Cluhs, F. B. 566. 

Hog Cholera, F. B. 379. 

Feeding Hogs in the South, F. B. 411. 

Breeds of Sheep, F. B. 576. 

Sheep Feeding, F. B. 49. 

Raising Sheep for Mutton, F. B. 79. 

Sheep Scab, F. B. 159. 

Breeds of Swine, F. B. 765. 

Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners, F. B. 840. 

Sicine Manageynent, F. B. 874. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

GOOD ROADS — FORESTRY — HOME AND SCHOOL 

GROUNDS 

279. The Farmer's Interest in Good Roads. — 

One of the most important things in connection with life 
on the farm is a good road. On the road the farmer 
must transport his produce to market, draw back his 
supplies, and travel to mill and to ^' meeting." ISToth- 
ing contributes so surely to dislike of country and farm- 
life as poor roads. The farmer plodding along in the 
mud, his team barely able to drag the load with harness^ 
horses, and wagon a mass of dirt, pictures to himself 
his more fortunate brother in the city, using paved 
streets and cement walks. He decides that he has had 
enough of farming, sells or rents the farm, and departs 
for the city. It is unnecessary to enlarge the picture ; 
it is too well known. During many days or even weeks 
of the year, the farmer and his family are shut away 
from town, from church, society, and entertainment. 
A large part of the trouble comes from the fact that 
most of the work on the roads has had only a temporary 
effect. 

280. How to Make and Keep a Road Good. — 
There are certain foundation principles that should gov- 
ern road-making and maintenance. The man who 

oversees the work should have scientific knowledge of 

310 



GOOD KOADS — FOKESTRY 



311 



how to make and maintain a good road. The material 
of the road should be graded with the coarsest at thQ 
bottom ; and the successive layers should be well rolled, 
compacted, and filled in with finer material. The road 
should be well drained. 

But it is most important of all to have a few work- 




A GOOD ROAD Typical of the best gravel road in Greene County. Iowa, 
which has been in 'use for seventeen years with no new gravel and no 
work upon it except road dragging in the spring. No mud has ever come 
through it. Graveling road of this width in this County averages $350 
per mile. — Iowa State Department of Education. 

men constantly making repairs. The railroad com- 
panies have learned that the only way to keep their 
roads in good repair is to have a '' section gang " with a 
competent boss constantly at work. Nothing made by 
man will last forever without attention and renewal, 
and a road is no exception. When a road shows signs of 
becoming rutty, the material should be hoed or dragged 



312 AN i:n^tkoductio^ to ageiculture 

into the ruts. A half -day's work at the right time will 
save several days' work later and may keep the road in 
good condition. The roadmaster should make it a par- 
ticular point to examine the road in rainy weather. He 
should notice where the water collects and should fill in 
such places as soon as the conditions permit. 

The material of which the roads are made will depend' 




PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF SPLIT-LOG DKAG. — Fanneia' Bulletin 321. 



on the locality and the financial condition of the abut- 
ters. Where it is possible, crushed stone should be used 
and a macadamized road built. In some states, the 
state assists and frequently builds a sample stretch of 
road as a model. Many miles of such roads have been 
built in many of the states. Where it is not possible 
to build stone roads, gravel may be used. There is a 
great difference in gravel roads, according to the kind 
of gravel and the plan of construction. The federal aid 
now available will doubtless give an impetus to a system 
of good trunk lines. Attention should be given to the 
drainage so as to avoid pools of standing water which 



GOOD KOADS — FOKESTKY 



313 



keep the road from di7ing out in spring and after 

rains. 

281. The Purpose o£ Forestry. — Forestry is the 
art of so managing growing timber that it may be used 
continuously for the needs of man. It includes not only 
raising and care, but the handling of the grown crop, its 




A FORE55T PROPERLY LOGOED UNDER THE FOREST SERVICE REGULATIONS 

The young growth is uninjured and the brush is piled ready for burning. 



product, and waste material. When the first settlers 
came to this country, they found an almost unlimited 
amount of forest land. Four hundred years of careless 
cutting have so devastated our forests that, unless some 
heroic efforts are made, forests will soon be no more. 
For this reason, the subject of forestry has been receiv- 
ing much attention recently. 



3U A^ IXTRODUCTIOX TO AGlUCULTURE 

282. Some Advantages of Forests. — It is now 

known that forests have an important influence on the 
climate. The air in a forest is some desjrees warmer 
in winter and cooler in summer than the air in the open. 
The air in the forest is more nearly saturated with 
water than the air outside. These three conditions 
must affect more or less the surroundino' region. The 
trees and the dead leaves on the ground catch the rain 
and hold it so that it does not run off so rapidly as it 
does outside, and thus floods are prevented. Equalizing 
the flow of streams is a most important influence of 
forests. As a wind break the forest is very important 
in some places. 

283. What Other Nations are Doing in Forestry. 
— xHmost every nation is doing something in the way 
of public forestry. Switzerland has one of the best 
systems in Europe, especially as a pattern for the 
United States. Forestry has been practiced there for 
six hundred years, and the public forests yield an 
annual return of about eight dollars per acre. The 
Swiss laws '^ are intended to work more through in- 
struction, good example, and encouragement than by 
severe regulations." 

284. What Our Government is Doing. — There 
are in the United States more than 500,000,000 acres 
of forests. Eor somewhat over one hundred years the 
United States has made some effort to preserve the 
public forests. Even as far back as 1653, '^ the authori- 
ties of Charlestown, Mass., forbade the cutting of tim- 
ber on town lands without permission." In 1799, Con- 
gress appropriated $200,000 for the purchase and 



GOOD EOADS — FOEESTKY 315 

preservation of timber land to supply ship timber for 
the navy. In 1891, an act was passed which was the 
first step toward a true policy for the forests of the 
nation. This act contained a clause which authorized 
the President to reserve timber land on the public 
timber lands, covering an area of 62,000,000 acres. 
Their use is to protect drainage basins used for irri- 
gating, supply grass and forage for heixis of cattle, 
and supply wood and hunber for settlers. 

285. How a Forest May Be Perpetuated. — Sev- 
eral methods to perpetuate a forest are in use. One 
method consists in dividing it into small sections and 
cutting one section clean each year. Xew trees, self- 
sown, w^ill grow up ;. and after many years the forest 
will consist of areas in wdiich the trees differ in age by 
one year. For example, it is found that certain trees 
will grow large enough for railroad ties in thirty-five 
years. By dividing a forest into thirty-five tracts and 
cutting off one tract each year, the supply could be 
made perpetual. Sometimes the trees for cutting are 
selected from the w^hole forest, the same ground being 
gone over year after year. Sometimes a strip one 
hundred vards wide or thereabouts is cut out and then 
allowed to grow up again. 

Become acquainted with the trees in your vicinity and 
know the names of some of them. 

286. Home and School Grounds. — Many school- 
houses and some farmhouses are situated in plots of 
ground that are destitute of trees and shrubs. The 
sun beats on the buildinsrs in the summer and the wind 



316 AX INTKODUCTIOX TO AGEICULTURE 

is unbroken in the winter. Nothing but barrenness is 
visible. If the objects that are seen daily impress our 
lives and help form our characters, then here is an op- 
portunity to impress beauty rather than its opposite 
quality. 

The work in school agriculture ought to create a 




A COUNTRY SCHOOL HOUSE WITH VINES AND SHRUBS. Courtesy Of Stark 

Bra's Nurseries d- Orchards Co., Louisiana, Mo. 



desire in the pupils to clean up and beautify the home 
and school grounds. From the neglected yards the tall 
grass and weeds should be cut and raked into piles, 
the other rubbish gathered up, and all burned or re- 
moved. Grass seed should then be sown. Even if 
nothing further is done, most premises will repay such 
work by their improved appearance. 



GOOD llOADS — FORESTEY 317 

287. Trees and Shrubs. — Trees and shrubs look 
better, as a rule, when planted in groups or clumps, 
rather than scattered singly around the home or school- 
house. Landscape gardeners say that the larger trees 
and shrubs should be in the background as a setting 
for the buildings, with low shrubs near the buildings 
and open spaces with grass in front. Often trees or 
shrubs can be used on the boundaries in place of un- 
sightly fences. It is a good plan to use trees or tall 
shrubs to hide the unsightly parts of buildings and out- 
houses. In selecting trees, find some that are hardy and 
will live readily in your locality. Some trees grow 
rapidly but will not live long, and usually prove un- 
satisfactory. The American white elm (not the red 
elm) and the hard maple (not the soft maple) are two 
standards for manv localities. The basswood, or 
American linden, is also hardy. The blossoms are 
visited by honeybees, which make excellent honey from 
the nectar in them. The ash trees are quite satis- 
factory in the Northern States, as are also the syca- 
more, mulberry, walnut, Norway maple, horse-chest- 
nut, and beech. If not too far north, the catalpa, tulip 
tree, the cucumber tree, and the sweet gum may be 
added to the list. If the buildings need protection from 
the winter winds, then evergreen trees make a good 
windbreak at some distance. The Norway spruce is 
quite satisfactory for this purpose; the Colorado blue 
spruce is perhaps more ornamental but not quite so vigo- 
rous in all climates. The blue spruce is often used as 
an ornamental tree. Directions for transplanting trees 
were given on page 194. 



318 AX IXTRODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTURE 

Shrubs. — In choosina: shrubs, choose hardv ones. 
Wild shrubs that grow in the locality are often the best 
for the purpose. Often there is some one in the neigh- 
borhood or district who has had experience in grow- 
ing shrubs in his home yard. Such a person will gen- 
erally be glad to help in choosing suitable shrubs, and 
sometimes can supply the plants from his own yard. 
Do not depend entirely upon the descriptions in cata- 
logues, or upon the advice of agents who are canvass- 
ing for shrubs and trees. Set out principally such 
shrubs as experience has shown will grow well in your 
locality. 

Some of the shrubs that are used in many localities 
and have proved satisfactory are species of spirea, 
Japanese barberry, honeysuckle, weigela, lilac, snow^- 
ball, double-tiowering crab or plum, mock orange, 
sumach, dogwood, and currants. There are many dif- 
ferent species of these shrubs, some being better adapted 
to one purp(ise and some another. If it is desired to 
form a hedge, the lilac, bush honeysuckle, arborvitae, 
elderberries, or others similar in character, will be 
found suitable. If there is a corner that can be filled 
with shrubs, tall ones should be set out in the rear and 
low ones in the front. The Japanese barberry is a 
pretty dwarf variety, and Waterer's spirea is very de- 
sirable as a low shrub, while the rose-colored weigela, 
tartarian honeysuckle, and mock orange are taller and 
suitable for places in the background. Because it en- 
courages wdieat rust, the purple barberry should be 
avoided. 

288. Vines. — There are many climbing plants that 



GOOD KOADS — FORESTKY 319 

can be used to make a yard beautiful. This is es- 
pecially true around porches, over the doors, along walls, 
on arbors, or to cover unsightly objects. Climbing 
roses, clematis, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, English 
ivy, Boston ivy, climbing honeysuckle, wistaria, trumpet 
creeper, and wild grape vine are all suitable for use. 
A word of caution is needed here, as well as at all 
points in gardening ; namely, that care must be exercised 
in the arrangement of the plants, or the results will be 
unsatisfactory. Each vine has its own beauty, deter- 
mined by its form, leaves and blossoms. The effect 
desired in any given place must determine the kind 
to be planted. There are a number of annual climb- 
ers that may be used in some places with good effect, 
such as morning-glory, wild cucumber, cinnamon vine, 
moon-vine and Madeira. 

289. Flower Garden. — Elowers should be raised in 
the garden or close to the sides of the house, but not 
in front or in beds on the lawn. It is, as a rule, better 
to leave the lawn directly in front of the house clear 
of trees, shrubs and flowers, but at the sides and rear 
trees and shrubs may be arranged according to some 
plan, and the shrubs may be bordered with flowers. 

One of the most interesting flower beds may be 
made from the native flowers which groAV in the vicinity. 
If a shady corner can be found, ferns make a very 
satisfactory background near buildings. Violets will 
usually thrive if transplanted wdth care ; bloodroot, 
anemones, hepatica, spring beauties, pasque flowers, 
columbine, and many other flowers can be added. 
Ferns often can be added to such a bed with good ef- 



320 AN INTEODUCTION TO AGKICULTURE 

feet. This is an excellent flower bed for a school yard, 
as the children can dig up the specimens for the bed 
and tend to them as they grow. The blossoms also 
will appear early in the spring, before the vacation be- 
gins. 

Old-fashioned flowers can be grown with satisfaction 
in the flower garden. Hollyhocks, phlox, dahlias, sun- 
flowers, pinks, nasturtiums, stocks, verbenias, mignon- 
ette, larkspur, and candytuft represent a partial list 
from which selections may be made. These are more 
suitable for the flower garden at home than at school. 
Some of these are suitable for borders along walks 
where shrubs are used in the background. 

Bulbs. — In place of sowing seeds as for the above- 
named plants, bulbs may be set out. A bulb is a short 
underground stem having buds and many scales, which 
represent leaves. Many of the early-flowering plants 
come from bulbs, in which much food has been stored 
in the scales. The crocus is the earliest of these plants 
to bloom out-of-doors in the spring. The hyacinths, 
tulips, narcissi, and lilies are very satisfactory. These 
bulbs should be planted in the ground in the autumn 
before the 2:round freezes. Thev will be ready to start 
with the first warm spring days. If the winters are 
very severe it may be best to cover the ground with 
leaves to protect the bulbs. 

Perennials. — There are many hardy plants that may 
be used in clumps in place of the bedding plants. The 
bedding plants must be renewed every year, and it is 
always late before they can be started. The hardy ones 
live over the winter, and increase from year to year. 



GOOD EOADS — FOKESTEY 321 

The investment here is a permanent one, while the other 
plants must be renewed each year. 

Make a plan for improving the school grounds. 

The most satisfactory flower gardens are those con- 
taining a good selection of perennials laid out in ac- 
cordance with approved plans. There is as much op- 
portunity for the display of good taste in this matter as 
in the furnishing of the inside of the house. Landscape 
gardening is being studied by many persons, and more 
and more grounds are being planned so as to produce 
harmonious effects with the building and its grounds. 

A few good perennials for a border garden are : 
Peonies, Shasta daisy, gaillardia, tiger lily, phlox, 
•coreopsis, columbine, larkspur, iris, mallow and bell 
flower. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Describe how some good roads have been built in your 
community. 

2. WHiat good road making materials are there in your lo- 
cality ? 

3. Is all limestone equally good for road making? Ex- 
plain. 

4. Wliy are roads built higher in the center than on the 
sides ? 

5. Why should ruts in roads be filled immediately with new 
materials ? 

6. About how many board feet of good lumber can be ob- 
tained from a tree which will yield two logs, 12 ft. long with 
an average diameter of 12 in., allowing one-fourth for waste 
in sawing? 

7. What is the value of the lumber at $50 per M. ? 

8. Name the shrubs grown on your home grounds. 



322 AN INTKODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTUKE 

9. What would be good shrubs to plant around the borders 
of your school yard ? 

10. Make a drawing showing where flowers and shrubs 
could be well placed on your school grounds. 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents^ 

Washington, D. C. 

Tree Planting hy Farmers, Year Book, Sep., 566, 5 cents. 
Progress in Saving Forest Waste, Year Book, Sep., 534, 5 

cents. 
Managevient of Second Growth Sprout Forests, Year Book, 

Sep., 525, 5 cents. 
Fire Prevention in National Forests, Year Book, Sep., 548, 

5 cents. 
The Design of Public Roads, Yearbook, Sep., 727, 5 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

Beautifying the Home Grounds, F. B. 185. 

Forestry in Nature Study, F. B. 468. 

Primer of Forestry, Part I, F. B. 173. 

Primer of Forestry, Part II, F. B. 358. 

Forest Planting and Farm Management, F. B. 228. 

Modern Conveniences on the Farm, F. B. 321. 

Benefits of Improved Roads, F. B. 311. 

Sand-Clay Roads, F. B. 338. 

Insect Enemies of Shade Trees, F. B. 99. 

Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds, F. B. 134. 

The Lawn, F. B. 248. 

Care and Improvement of the Wood Lot, F. B. 711. 

Roses for the Home, F. B. 750. 

The Windbreak as a Farm Asset, F. B. 788« 



CHAPTEE XXVIII 

SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 

Agricultueal Clubs 

290. Importance of School-Home Projects. — If 

the study of agriculture is going to mean much to a 
pupil, it must consist of more than recitations from a 
text book, and of laboratory exercises and field trips. 
To be sure the laboratory work and the field trips are 
important, and greatly help to convey clear ideas, but 
unless one puts into practice some of the principles of 
agriculture by actually doing something, that is, by car- 
rying on some agricultural project, what he has learned 
will soon be forgotten, and the most vital phase of the 
study of agriculture will have been neglected. 

291. Some Schools Require Project Work. — In 
some states, and in many counties of other states, each 
student that wishes to enter a class in agriculture, must 
■carry on some school-home project. In many schools, 
no credit even is given for the study of agriculture un- 
less a student has satisfactorily completed a project. 

292. Nature of School-Home Projects. — Any 

agricultural work, which is done at home, but which at 

the same time is done as a part of the instruction in 

agriculture of the school, may be called a school-home 

project, a home-project, or merely a project. 

323 



324 AN IXTKODUCTION TO AGKICULTUKE 



The nature of the different projects, which may be 
carried on by pupils, varies greatly, depending upon the 
pupils, upon market demands, and upon the types o£ 
farming being done on the home farms of the pupils. 
Some of the commonest projects are vegetable growings 
the care and feeding of animals, the growing of corn^ 



MiJ^ 




PROJECT WORKERS. — Farmers' Bulletin 813, Department of Agriculture. 

the managing of poultry, and the raising of animals. 
A list of home projects is given on page 327. 

293. How a Pupil May Start a Project. — Any 
pupil who wishes to start a well planned home project,, 
and to do the work in a business-like manner, should talk 
the matter over with his teacher and with his parents,, 
and come to a definite conclusion as to what his project 
is to be. A well conducted school-home project is really 
an informal business arrangement between a pupil, his 
parents, and his teacher. The pupil agrees to do some, 
particular kind of work; the parents agree to see that 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 325 

this work is regularly attended to ; and the teacher holds 
the pupil responsible for that part of the work which 
may be concerned with the school work, such as the 
keeping of accounts; the carrying on of some outside 
reading in reference to the work ; the writing and ex- 
pressing of his ideas concerning it. The teacher also 
demands frequent reports, written or oral, regarding 
the progress and results of the project, and finally, re- 
quires a summary or story of the project, with a finan- 
cial statement, if money is involved in the project. 

Generally, also, the work of the project itself is at 
least partly supervised by the teacher, by a special in- 
structor in charge of project work, or by a county agri- 
cultural a^ent. 

294. Some Results of Project Work. — Because 
so many factors enter into the work, the results ob- 
tained by pupils in their project work naturally vary. 
It is safe to say, however, that if a project is well 
planned and conducted, if the directions and sugges- 
tions given by the teacher and obtained from assigned 
readings, are carefully followed, and if the weather is 
favorable, the results will be very good. 

A recent Agricultural Year Book gives some interest- 
ing examples of project work with pigs. A few of these 
are here stated : 

A boy in Massachusetts fed two pigs, which, during the 
last 92 days of the feeding period, made a total gain of 421 
pounds, or an average daily gain of 2.28 pounds per pig. 

Another young boy raised a pig, fed it, and took entire care 
of it, and when this pig was eleven months old it weighed 450 
pounds. 

A young boy exhibited a sow and her litter of nine pigs at 



32G AX INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUEE 

the Louisiana State Fair in 1915 for which he was offered 
$400. This offer he refused but he did sell four of the pigs 
for $260. He kept the sow and the other five pigs, which he 
valued at $G00. He figured that his net profits with these 
pigs for his year's work amounted to $647.12. 

Surely these boys, as well as thousands of others, 
engaged in pig projects, mastered the subject of feed- 
ing swine. Could they have done this if they had not 
undertaken their projects ? 

A young Wisconsin boy bought three high grade beef 
steers in March. He fed these steers and did all the work 
in caring for them. In the fall he exhibited the steers at 
three different Fairs and the cash premiums which he won 
amounted to $68(S. 

In Cook County, Illinois, a 12 year old boy made a net 
profit of $138.26 by growing onions on a piece of ground 
measuring 100 square rds. 

Another 12 5^ear old boy made a net profit of $134.35 from 
80 square rods planted to tomatoes. 

These facts merely give a slight idea of some of the 
results actually accomplished. In every state there are 
hundreds of boys and girls making large profits from 
their projects. Some of the largest yields of corn ever 
obtained have been made by bovs in corn-club work. 
All these instances cited show that when one does work 
the way it should be done, the results invariably are 
good. 

It should be the ambition of every pupil living in 
the countrv to undertake every vear while attending 
school some home project in connection with the school 
work in agriculture. He should succeed with these pro- 
jects much better than he would have done had he 



SCHOOL-HOME rilOJECTS 



327 



not studied agricvilture. He should secure a good 
financial gain from his project, and more important 
still, he should acquire a training from the work which 
will he a valuable asset to him tliroughout his life. 

295. Kinds of Projects.— The kinds of projects 
imdertaken should be adapted to the ages of the pupils. 
Each pupil should always select, or be assigned, a work 




POULTR.rcLUB BOYS BUILDING A POVLTRY HOUSE.- 1925 Yearbook, De- 

partment of Agriculture. 

along some line in which he is especially interested. A 
pupil's first project should be a simple one, and not of 
too long duration. 

Examples of Simple or Short Projects 

1. Managing a small part of the garden. 

2. Feeding chickens and gathering the eggs. 

3. Weekly testing of the milk of one or more cows. 

4. Testing the seed corn to be used. 



328 AN INTEODUCTIO^ TO AGKICULTURE 

5. Monthly milk record of one or more cows. 

6. Growing a few kinds of flowers. 

7. Feeding a calf, colt, or a litter of pigs. 

Examples of Longer Projects 

1. Raising vegetables for the market. 

2. Growing and canning tomatoes. 

3. Managing the poultry flock. 

4. Growing a crop of corn, potatoes, etc. 




WIIiLAKD MARTIE, DISTRICT 138, DIVISION FOUR 

Started in the Poultry Project with a trio of eieese March 1, 1916. He 
made $19.50 from his project. — Cnurtesy of Miss Catherine McClaU(/hry, 
School and Countrn Life Director, Cook Co., 111. 

296. Planning a Project. — The pupil should dis- 
cuss with the teacher the general plan of the selected 
project and the method of conducting it. Often it is 
possible to get the State Leader of Boys' and Girls' 



SCHOOL-HOME PKOJECTS 321> 

Club Work of the State College of Agriculture to talk 
to the pupils and to give them a general idea of what 
should be done and how to go about it. Often the 
County Agricultural agent or the County Superintend- 
ent of schools will explain the work. 

First, an outline of the project should be made, in- 
dicating: 

1. The reading which should be done to gain information 
necessary for the successful conduction of the project, if its 
nature requires this. 

2. The work which must be done. 

3. The things that should be observed as the project pro- 
gresses. 

4. What facts in regard to the project should be recorded. 

The plan or outline of the project should then be 
neatly and carefully written and kept for a guide in the 
work. 

297. Suggestive Outlines for Projects. — Below 
are given several suggestive outlines for the conduction 
of school-home projects which may help in planning 
one. 

Project 1. 

To find out now much butter-fat is produced during^ 
a month by each cow in the herd. 

A. Assigned Eeading. 

References to books and bulletins. 

B. Preliminary Study. 

1. How is the milk of each cow weighed ? 

2. How are the weights recorded ? 



330 AX I^^TEODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTUKE 

3. How often are samples of milk to be tested 
to be obtained, and how are they to be 
kept ? 

4. What are the steps in testing milk? 

5. How is the amount of butter fat calculated ? 

C. Work and Observation. 

1. Weighing and recording weight of milk of 

each cow. 

2. Obtaining and keeping accurate samples of 

milk. 

3. Testing the milk, and recording the tests. 

4. Calculating amount of butter fat produced. 

D. Discussion of Results. 

1. Are the results good or poor? 

2. How do you account for the yield of the 

cows ? 

3. How do the results vary ? Account for 

this. 

Project 2. 
Managing a flock of laying hens. 

A. Assigned Reading. 

References to books and bulletins. 

B. Preliminary Study. 

1. What are the essentials of good poultry 

houses ? 

2. How should poultry be housed during 

winter ? 

3. What would be the best and most economical 

rations to feed ? 



SCHOOL-HOME PliOJECTS 331 

4. How and when should the flock be fed ? 

5. How are the good birds selected ? 

6. What records should be kept and how ? 

C. Work and Observation. 

1. See that the poultry house is comfortable 

and convenient. 

2. Weed out the flock and keep only the best 

birds. 

3. Feed and water the birds regularly. 

4. Gather and properly store and market the 

5. Keep the house clean and free of pests. 

6. Keep accurate accounts. 

D. Discussion of Kesults. 

1. Success of the project. 

2. Ditticulties encountered. 

3. Knowledge gained. 

4. Profits. 

298. Final Report of a Project. — When the pro- 
ject is completed, the pupil should make a brief, 
written report giving the most essential feature of the 
project, and, where one can be made, a financial state- 
ment. Often, however, a project does not involve any 
money. In some schools each pupil enrolled in pro- 
ject work is given a blank record book of 12 to 14 pages, 
in which are (1) a place in which to insert the picture 
of the project worker, (2) a summary sheet on which 
to record the name of the pupil, his age, the teacher's 
name, the nature of his project, the size of his plot, the 
crops he raises, etc., the total income, the total cost, 



332 AN I]SrTRODUCTIO:N' TO AGRICULTUEE 

the total profit J and the disposal of net proceeds, (3) 
several sheets iiiled as a cash book, intended for the 
enumeration of receipts and expenditures, (4) five or 
.six pages to contain the story of the project, (5) a page 
on which to record the names and dates of visitors, and 
(6) a page on w^hich to record the articles read and 
studied in the work of the project. 

When final reports, similar to these, are made, the 
records should be svstematized and recorded in e'ood, 
business-like manner. Usually, however, in place of 
the use of blank record books, pupils make illustrated 
booklets, for the summary of a project. When these 
are carefully made they reflect much credit on the 
pupils. 

299. The Story of a Project. — In writing the story 
of a project the diary form, giving the dates of the 
progress of the work, is most commonly used. The 
.storv should include: 

1. How and from whom the land was obtained, if land was 
fiised. 

2. Date the project was started. 

3. Dates of different operations. 

4. Progress and important incidents. 

5. Disposal of i^roceeds. 

6. Disposal of crops. 

7. Reasons for success. 

Naturally the story will vary according to the nature 
of the project, and according to the pupil. The out- 
line here given is merely for suggestive purposes. 

300. Results of School-Home Projects. — If the 
project was carefully planned and conducted properly, 



SCIIOOL-IIOME PROJECTS 



oo«r 



the pupil will have succeeded in the work. lie will 
have gained by it far more than he himself realizes, 
for he will have acquired the practical information 
that comes from the accomplishment of some real practi- 
cal work. He will also have learned how to keep 
records and accounts in a business-like manner. 

In one school district in Illinois, in one season, the 
average net profits of 29 pupils enrolled in school-home 
projects was $40.80. The ages of these pupils varied 
from 10 to 14 years. Each pupil made a booklet. 
The making of the booklet developed careful planning, 
neat writing, accurate spelling, and clear expression of 
thought. These booklets were not only a source of 
pleasure to the pupils but something they had a right 
to be proud of. The project work also aiforded excel- 
lent reading material, gave many topics for oral and 
written language work, and suggested many practical 
problems in arithmetic. 

301. Boys' and Girls' Club Work. — Whenever a 
number of pupils of a school engage in projects, a school- 
home project club should be formed. Most states now 
have located at their State Agricultural College, a de- 
partment which has charge of the club work within the 
states. The leader or director of this work is supplied 
with much material, such as outlines of projects, sug- 
gested constitutions and by-laws, and many other sug- 
gestions concerning the organizing and conducting of 
boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The United States 
Department of Agriculture, as well as the individual 
states, also maintains such a department. Any infor- 
mation desired may be obtained from either source. 



334 AN I^TKODUCTIO]^ TO AGRICULTUEE 

Often, if he is asked, the State Leader will come to the 
school and help organize a club. Any of the projects 
listed on pages 327-328 may be selected for a club 
project. The more common club projects are: 

corn clubs calf clubs sheep clubs 

poultry clubs tomato clubs pig clubs 

canning- clubs feeding cattle milk testing 

colt clubs clubs clubs 

Club organization stimulates pupils, creates a whole- 
some rivalry, offers excellent means for comparisons, and 
adds much interest to the work. The value of club work 
cannot be overestimated and in some localities it is re- 
sponsible for much of the agricultural improvement. 

Steps in organizing a local boys' and girls' agri- 
cultural club are given below: 

1. Write to the state leader of club work at the State 

Agricultural College for suggestive material and 
blanks. 

2. Determine the nature of the projects which would 

be best suited to the community. 

3. Talk matters over with parents before enrolling. 

4. Enrolling of members and forming the club. 

5. Election of officers. 

6. Adoption of a constitution for the club. State 

club leaders have samples. 

7. Secure local leadership. 

8. Hold regular meetings. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What home projects have you ever carried on ? Give an 
account of them. 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 335 

2. How much money have your home projects netted you? 

3. Why are home projects better than experiments carried 
on in the school room ? 

4. What home projects do you think could be successfully 
conducted in your locality? 

5. What kind of a home project would you be interested in ? 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

Boys' and Girls' Corn Cluhs, B. P. I. Doc. 803, 5 cents. 
Results of Boys' and Girls' Cluh Work, B. P. I. Paper, 5 

cents. 
Lessons on Poultry for Rural School, Bui. 464, 10 cents. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

The Home Vegetable Garden, F. B. 255. 

Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Cluhs, F. B. 385. 

Boys and Girls' Poultry Cluhs, F. B. 562. 

Farm Bookkeeping, F. B. 511. 

Boys' Pig Cluhs, F. B. 556. 

Canning Tomatoes at Home and as Cluh Work, F. B. 521. 

Use of Diary for Farm Accounts, F. B. 782. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

SCHOOL GARDENS 

School gardens have passed the experimental stage 
and are no longer regarded as fads. They are now so 
well established in all sections of the United States, 
and have met with so much success, that they will 
continue to grow more and more popular. 

Whether or not a school should undertake a school 
.garden depends upon a number of factors. Large 
school gardens require the services of some one who 
not only is familiar with garden work but who can 
direct it successfully in all its phases, such as the 
selection of the site, the planning, the fertilization of 
the soil, the preparation of the seed bed^ the staking 
out of the garden, the ordering of seed, the planting, 
and the cultivation. The school garden, if under- 
taken, should be continued throughout the summer and 
the early fall, and it should be a finished success. It 
is discouraging to the pupils to fail to complete some- 
thing they have begun, and the school garden had better 
not be undertaken at all unless it can be carried through 
the season and luade a success. The proper direction 
of the work, and its continuation during the summer 
months, when school is not in session, are the most 
important factors entering into successful school 

gardens. School garden work is usually most satis- 

336 



SCHOOL GAEDEXS 



337 



factor ily accomplished by the employment of a special 
teacher who thorouiihlv understands this work. 

302. Conducting School Gardens. — The general 
principles goN'erning the selection of the sites for school 
gardens, the fertilization of the soil, the preparation of 
the seed-bed, the planting of seeds, and the cultivation, 
are similar to those given in Chapter XVII for the home 




SCHOOL GARDEN, EMERSON SCHOOL. GARY. Note the Systematic order, 
close observation, etc. — Courtesu of Frank E. Ilifihwaii, Co. Supl. Lake 
County, Ind. 

garden. The planning should be done on paper 
during the winter. The choice of vegetables should 
be made carefully. Subjects like testing seeds, plant- 
ing seeds, raising and transplanting seedlings, cultiva- 
tion, and other related topics should be discussed 
thoroughly with the pupils before the practical work 
is started in the spring. 



338 AN INTEODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTUKE 

303. Planning the School Garden. — In order to 
make an accurate plan for a school garden it is essential 



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PLAN or A SCHOOL OARDEN 70' X 87'. 20 plots each 15' X 15' 



that the site he carefnllv measured, and that it be 
known just how many pupils are to have plots in the 



SCHOOL GARDENS 339 

school garden. With these two considerations, one haS 
the basis for a good plan. 

Let us assume that a field, 70 feet wide and 87 feet 
deep, is available, and that twenty pupils are to be ac- 
eommodated. The plan suggests how this may be done. 

Each plot measures 15 by 15 feet, and has a path 
2 feet wide, and 2 feet at each side running length- 
wise through the garden. At each end of the garden 
there is a path 3 feet wide. The paths running cross- 
wise between the plots are 18 inches wide. 

304. Laying Out the Garden.— In laying out this 
garden, stakes marking the outside corners of each plot 
should be carefully located, using a tape line. Then a 
line of stakes should be located lengthwise through the 
<?enter, marking the corners of the plots. Using as 
guides the stakes around the outside of the garden and 
also those through the center, the four corner stakes for 
each plot may be located. 

305. Planting Schemes for School Gardens.— Tn 
planting the garden the plan must be carefully followed. 
In some school gardens the crops planted in each plot 
are exactly alike and the same kind of vegetable is 
found in the same row of each plot, making continuous 
rows of the same kinds of vegetable from one end of 
the garden to the other. 

Sometimes this scheme is varied, so that one row 
or series of plots such as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, as shown on 
the plan, are planted exactly alike, and the crops grown 
in another series or row of plots vary. This permits 
the student a little choice, as he may choose a plot in 
a series which suits him the best. 













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SCHOOL GARDE:N"S 341 

Often pupils may be allowed to plant whatever tliey 
wish, but a plan should be requested from each pupil, 
which shows the rows of his plot running in the same 
direction as the others in the garden, and which shows 
also the proper interval between the rows. 

306. Ordering the Seeds. — With a definite plan in 
mind, it is easy, to make out an economical seed order 
by simply adding up the number of linear feet of 
each kind of vegetable required and consulting a seed 
catalogue which shows the amounts of seeds required for 
given areas. 

307. Vegetables to Grow. — If the rows of the 
garden run north and south almost any kind of vege- 
table may be grown. Below are given four different 
planting schemes, each suitable for a plot 15 feet by 15 
feet. Any one of these may be used to plant either 
a series of plots or the plots. 

Having determined the size of the plots, it is ex- 
cellent work for a pupil to adjust the vegetables he 
wishes to grow, to the plot, allowing proper distances 
between the rows. There is no limit to the different 
kinds of planting schemes suitable for one plot, but by 
grouping those pupils who wish to plant the same 
general vegetables, it is usually not difficult to find 
enough pupils who are willing to use the same planting 
scheme, to take all the plots in a series. 

The planting schemes given show both companion and 
succession crop. In many school gardens the planting 
of succession crops is left entirely to the students. 
Here, as in all planting, a plan is generally submitted 
first, and the pupil is thus guided in his work. 



342 AN IXTEODUCTIOX TO AGKICULTURE 

308. Preparation of the Seed Bed. — If the garden 
is large, a man with a team of horses should be engaged 
to plow, disk and harrow the ground. The soil should 
be fairly smooth, level, and in a good crumbly condi- 
tion, when he has finished his work. 

All the stakes should then be set and the plots as- 
signed to the pupils. The pupils should put the finish- 
ing touches to the preparation of the soil. Stones and 
rubbish only should be raked off. The lumps of dirt 
should be crushed with the rake. The rubbish should 
not be left in the paths but should be put in some desig- 
nated dumping place. 

When the pupils have finished their task, the plots 
should be perfectly smooth and the soil in a fine condi- 
tion. The plots should be kept on a level with the paths, 
and each pupil should be held responsible for the care 
of one half of each path surrounding his plot ; those 
who have plots on the sides or ends should be entirely 
responsible for all the paths which touch their plots 
only. 

309. Planting the Seeds. — If an accurate plan of 
the garden has been made and if each plot in a series 
is planted alike, planting becomes a simple matter. 
Let us suppose that we are going to plant the first series 
of plots 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 shown on the plan exactly alike, 
that is, according to the same scheme. 

Set stakes along the outer edge of the end plots, 1 
and 5, that is, the upper and lower ends. These stakes 
should be so placed that their distances from the corner 
stakes, and the distances between them correspond to 
those given in planting scheme 1. That is, the first 



SCHOOL GAKDEXS 343 

stake on each end should be placed one foot in from the 
corner stake; the second, one and a half feet in from 
the previous stake, and so on. When the stakes are set, 
the distances should be checked up to see that no mis- 
takes have been made. 

When the stakes are properly located, stretch a garden 
line betv^een the two end stakes placed one foot in 
from the corner stakes, and plant the seeds in the first 
row of each plot in the series as described in Chapter 
XVII. This method is so simple that the planting of 
the garden is quick work. It is absolutely essential, 
however, that each pupil having a plot in a series be on 
hand when that series is planted. When the first row 
of seeds is planted, move the line on to the next stakes 
and continue the process. 

To accomplish this work speedily the director of the 
garden work should have the assistance of some of the 
teachers. There should be three teachers to supervise 
the planting in each series of plots, two to move the 
garden line when needed, and see that the work is being 
done properly, and one to give out the seeds and to 
hold the plan of the series. 

In school garden work, planting is the only busy 
time. Before any of the actual planting is done, the 
method of planting seeds should have been carefully 
discussed with the pupils in the school room as a part 
of the regular school work.' In the garden itself, the 
planting should be immediately preceded by a brief 
demonstration. After a plot has been planted, a piece 
of common white twine mav be run around the outside 
of the plot by fastening the twine to the corner stakes. 



344 AN I]SrTKODUCTIO:N^ TO AGRICULTUEE 

This prevents plots from being walked upon before the 
plants have begun to grow. 

310. Cultivation. — Before any cultivation is done 
in the garden plots, the subject of cultivation should 
be discussed in the class room until the pupils have a 
clear idea of why they cultivate and of just how they 
should do it. Methods of cultivation have been de- 
scribed in Chapter XVII. If the school does not 
own the necessary implements, the pupils will have to 
supply their own. Some arrangement, such as a 
shed on or near the garden grounds, should be made 
for storing the tools so that it may not be necessary 
for the pupils to carry the implements back and 
forth. 

311. Garden Accounts and the Garden Diary. — 
Many schools require that each pupil keep a diary of 
the garden and a simple account of expenditures, re- 
ceipts and production. Often these accounts are made 
a part of the diary. The diary and accounts, together 
with some garden snap shots_j at the end of the season, 
may be made into neat and attractive garden booklets, 
enclosed in designed covers. The accounts kept vary; 
the simplest ought to show all cash expenses and all 
receipts, whether the vegetables are sold or are used at 
home. 

In the diary, dates of planting the seeds and of the 
first appearance of the plants make interesting items 
to enter. The first day a crop is harvested should be 
noted. Kames of visitors to the garden should be re- 
corded. Insects, birds and weeds seen in the garden, 
the weather from week to week, and its effect on the 



SCHOOL GARDENS 345 

growth and condition of the garden are other items of 
interest. 

312. Prizes For Garden Work. — Usually, as an 
incentive to effort, prizes are offered in connection with 
the school gardens. These vary and include : — 

Prizes for highest final grades on the garden work 
" " best display of vegetables 
" " best display of some vegetable 
" " best kept diary 
" " best kept accounts 
" " largest profits. 

Those prizes offered for the hest final grades usually 
arouse the most competition and produce the best re- 
sults. A system which may be used to get these final 
grades follows : 

1. The principal of each school appoints a committee 
of three persons to judge and grade the garden plotr^ 
at intervals of three or four weeks throughout the grow- 
ing season. 

2. Each judge is supplied with a strip of paper 
showing a diagram of the school garden with the plots 
numbered. E'o names of plot owners are made knowni 
to the judges. 

3t At each grading, each judge, acting independently 
parses up and down the paths and selects what he 
considers the best plot and grades it 100; the sec- 
ond best 95 ; the third best 90 and the others 75 and 

50. 

4. He considers the following points: 



346 AN INTKODUCTION TO AGEICULTURE 

At the first judging 

a. General appearance of plots 

b. The stand, whether poor or too thick 

c. Straightness of rows 

d. Freedom from weeds 

e. Condition of soil 

At subsequent judging 

a. General appearance of plots 

b. Condition of old plants 

c. Freedom from weeds 

d. Condition of soil 

e. The condition of the paths 

f. Condition of succession crops 

5. At each judging the marks are sent to the princi- 
pal of the school and the averages are made out and 
given to the pupils. 

Often at each grading, red, white and blue ribbons are 
attached to a few plots ranking highest. These are 
left on the plots for a few days, and then removed, to 
be used again after the next grading. 

6. At the close of the season each pupil is given his 
final grade and the prizes are awarded to those who 
receive the highest final marks. 

To win a prize one not only must keep continuously 
at work but must use good judgment. Mistakes made 
in planting succession crops, or in failing to plant them, 
cultivating the soil when it is in an unfavorable con- 
dition, and failure to harvest vegetables when they 
should be harvested lower the marks. 

7. The last grading is usually made in September 
after school has opened. 



SCHOOL GAEDENS 347 

313. Harvesting the Vegetables. — Just as soon as 
the crops begin to mature, tliey should be taken home 
or sold, in measured lots. A quart and peck measure 
ought to be available for each school garden. Failure 
to remove mature vegetables at the proper time is an 
item for which the judges should mark off severely. 
Many good vegetables are spoiled by failure to harvest 
them at the proper time. 

314. Observational or Demonstrational Plots. — 
In many school gardens, besides the plots used for vege- 
tables, a number of small plots are used for obsei^a- 
tional or demonstrational purposes. Sometimes these 
plots are planted to as many different kinds of flowers 
or farm crops as it is possible to grow. Many city 
children have never seen such crops as buckwheat, flax, 
wheat, barley, rye, oats, soybeans, cowpeas, millet 
and other common farm crops, grow. To be able to 
watch them develop and grow is a valuable bit of educa- 
tion to such children. 

. There is really no limit either to the number of plots, 
or to their arrangements in school gardens. Each 
school should change the plan a little each year and 
trv to introduce some new features. 

315. School Gardens For Rural Schools. — There 
are many opportunities for school garden work in rural 
communities. Beds, three or four feet wide, next to the- 
fence, and around the school grounds, may be used to 
very good advantage for the growing of shrubs, flowers 
and perhaps a few early vegetables. Portions of these 
beds may be used for demonstrational purposes, and 
in them the pupils should do all the work. In manjr 



348 AX IXTRODUCTIOX TO AGRICULTURE 

rural communities parts of a field adjoining the school 
grounds are used for the growing of one or more field 
crops for demonstrational purposes. If these grounds 
are so arranged that all the work may be done with 
horses, the cultivation may be looked after easily. 
Some rural schools run corn, potato, fertilizer and other 
demonstrational plots, and the sale value of the crops 
raised usually leaves a good cash surplus to the schools. 
Xo school vegetable gardens should be undertaken in 
rural communities. The place for these in rural com- 
munities is on the home farms, and much emphasis 
should be given to home gardens. 

Bulletins for Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

Washington, D. C. 

School Gardening and Nature Study in England, Exp. Sta. 

Bui. 204, 5 cents. 
German School Gardens, Exp. Sta. Cir. 42, 5 cents. 
Some Types of Children's Garden WorTc, Exp. Sta. Bui. 252, 

15 cents. 
School Home-Garden Circulars (Send for list.) 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

The School Garden, E. B. 218. 
Frames for Early Vegetahles, F. B. 460. 
The Home Vegetahle Garden, E. B. 255. 



APPENDIX 

Table 1 

Suggested References — Government Publications 

At the end of each chapter are names and numbers of Far- 
mers' Bulletins (F. B.) published by the U, S. Department of 
Agriculture, and names of agricultural publications for sale 
by the Superintendent of Documents at Washington, D. C. 

The Farmers' Bulletins will be sent, free of charge, so long 
as the supply lasts, to any resident of the United States, on 
application to his Senator or Representative in Congress, or 
to the Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. The States Relation Service of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C, 
publishes much interesting material, obtainable on applica- 
tion, for all teachers of agriculture. Each teacher should also 
have a list of the available bulletins published by his State 
College of Agriculture. This is sent free. 

The United States government is the greatest agent for re- 
search work and investigations in all branches of agriculture. 
Most of its publications are for sale by the Superintendent 
of Documents, located in the Government Printing Office at 
Washington, D. C. The prices charged must be paid in ad- 
vance of shipment. The documents have the freedom of the 
mails. The Superintendent of Documents has no publica- 
tions for free distribution but he will send free of charge to 
anyone, price lists of the various publications he has for sale. 
The publications pertaining to Agriculture are grouped and 
numbered as follows: 

16. Farmers' Bulletins, Agriculture Department Bulletins, Year- 
books. 
42. Agricultural Experiment Stations. 

349 



350 APPENDIX 

(Table 1 continued) 

51. Health, Disease, and Sanitation. 

'64. Standards of Weights and Measures. 

38. Animal Industry. 

39. Birds and Wild Animals. 

40. Chemistry. 

41. Insects. 

11. Foods, Cooking, and Canning. 
31. Education. 

43. Forestry. 

45. Roads. 

44. Plants. 

46. Soils and Fertilizers. 
48. Weather. 

68. Farm Management. 

How to Remit 

The remittance should be made to the Superintendent of 
Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1). C, 
by coupons or by postal money order. Postage stamps are 
not accepted. The coupons are sold by the Superintendent of 
Documents, and may be purchased from his office in sets of 
twenty for $1.00. They are good until used in exchange for 
Government publications. 

Sample Form of Request. 

Superintendent of Public Documents, 
Government Printing Office, 
Washington, D. C, 

Dear Sir: 

Please send me price list 38, Animal Industry publications, and 

greatly oblige, 

Write your name clearly ( ) 

Address clearly ( ) 

State ( ) 



APPENDIX 



351 



Table 2. Plant Food in Crops and Seeds 

The table below shows the number of pounds of dry matter 
and the number of pounds of the three elements of plant 
food contained in 1000 pounds of grains, seeds, cured hay, 
stalks, stovers, silages, and miscellaneous substances. 



Materials 


Dry 
Matter 


Nitrogen 


Phos- 
phorus 


Potassium 


Grain and Seeds. 










Corn 


894 
913 
895 
896 
892 
866 
883 
897 


16.5 
18.1 
19.0 
18.2 
19.2 
17.3 
53.6 
29.4 


3.1 
3.8 
3.8 
3.4 
3.4 
3.0 
4.5 
4.6 


4.7 


Rve 


4.8 


Wheat 


4.6 


Oats 


4.0 


Barlev 


4.0 


Buckwheat 


2.5 


Soybeans 


10.5 


Cotton Seed 


9.0 


Cowueas 


854 


32.8 


4.4 


10.0 


Cured Hays 










Timothy Hay 


868 


9.4 


1.4 


11.8 


Red Top 


911 


12.6 


1.6 


8.5 


Red Clover 


847 


19.7 


2.4 


15.5 


Alsike Clover 


903 


20.5 


2.2 


11.5 


Sweet Clover 


908 


27.7 


2.5 


15.2 


Alfalfa 


919 

887 
850 


23.4 
27.2 
20.5 


2.7 
4.2 
2.6 


11.8 


Hairy Vetch 


20.2 


Oat and Vetch 


10.5 


Cured Straws and 










Stovers 










Wheat 


904 
929 


5.0 
5.0 


1.0 
1.1 


5.2 


Rye 


7.1 


Oat 


908 


5.8 


1.3 


14.7 


Barley 


858 
901 


7.0 
8.0 


0.9 
0.6 


8.7 


Buckwheat 


9.5 


Corn Stover (no ear.J . 


595 


6.1 


1.7 


9.0 


Miscellaneous 










Potato Tubers 


209 


34.8 


.7 


4.8 


Sugar beets 


135 


24.6 


.4 


3.1 


Corn Silage 


264 


5.8 


.5 


3.0 


Sov bean silage 


258 


25.0 


1.0 


1.7 


Tobacco leaves 


850 


34.8 


3.0 


35.4 


Tobacco stems 


850 


24.6 


4.2 


24.4 


Milk, whole 


128 


5.8 


1.9 


1.7 


Buttermilk 


100 


6.5 


1.0 


1.7 


Butter 




2.0 


.5 


.25 


Fat Cattle 


. . . 


25.0 


7.0 


1.0 


Fat Hogs 


• • ■ 


18.0 


3.0 


1.0 


Barnyard manure 


250 


5.0 


1.5 


4.0 



To change the wt. of nitrogen, N. to ammonia, NHg multiply by 1.2. 

' phosphorus, P to " Phos. acid," P2O5, multiply by 

2 3 

" " " potassium. K, to potash, K2O, multiply by 1.2. 

See Chapter YII for discussion of this table compiled from 
Henry's " Feeds and Feedings." 



352 



appe:n^dix 



Table 3. Plant Food in Pertilizing Materials 

This table shows the average amount of plant food con- 
tained in 1,000 pounds of common fertilizing materials. 



Material 



Nitrogen 



Phosphorus 



Soluble 



Insoluble 



Potassium 



Barn yard manure. 
Sodium nitrate .... 
Ammonium sulphate 
Raw bone meal. . . . 
Steamed bone meal . 
Raw phosphate rook 
Acid phosphate . . . 

Basic slag 

Wood ashes 

Kanit 

Potassium chloride . 
Potassium sulphate 



5 

150 

200 

40 

10 



1.5 



70. 
5. 



90 

125 

125 

10 

80 



50 
120 
400 
400 



Compiled from Hopkin's " Soil Fertility and Permanent 
Agriculture." 



Table 4. Digestible Nutrients in Crops and Feeds 

Average Amount of Digestible Nutrients in 100 lbs. of Com- 
mon Feeding Stuffs.^ 





Total 
Dry Matter 
in 100 lbs. 


Digestible Nutrients 


Feeding Stuff 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Concentrates, milk, 
etc. 

Dent corn 

Corn meal 

Cornand-cob meal.. 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Wheat 


Lbs. 
89.4 
85.0 
84.9 
90.5 
90.8 
89.5 
90.0 
88.1 
91.3 
89.2 
89.6 
86.6 
90.1 
90.2 
92.6 
91.3 
91.6 
92.0 


Lbs. 

7.8 

6.1 

4.4 

29.7 

21.3 

8.8 

16.9 

11.9 

9.5 

8.4 

8.8 

8.1 

5.2 

30.2 

35.8 

20.0 

4.1 

6.1 


Lbs. 

66.8 
64.3 
60.0 
42.5 
52.8 
67.5 
53.6 
42.0 
69.4 
65.8 
49.2 
48.2 
44.3 
32.0 
23.2 
32.2 
64.9 
68.7 


Lbs. 

4.3 
3.5 
2.9 
6.1 
2.9 
1.5 


Flour middlings . . . 

Wheat bran 

Rye 


4.1 
2.5 
1.2 


Barley 


1.6 


Oats 


4.3 


Buckwheat 

Kafir corn 

Linseed meal (op.) . 
Cotton seed meal. . . 
Dried brewers' grains 
Dried beet pulp .... 
Beet molasses .... 


2.4 
1.4 
6.9 
8.0 
6.0 



1 Taken from Henry's " Feeds and Feeding. 



APPENDIX 



353 



(Table 4 continued) 





Total 

Dry Matter 

in 100 lbs. 


Digestible Nutrients 


Feeding Stuff 


Protein 


Carboiiy- 
drates 


Fat 


etc. 

Meat scrap 

Tankage 


Lbs. 

89.3 

93.0 

12.8 

9.4 

9.9 

6.2 

59.5 
86.8 
84.7 
91.9 
90.4 
90.8 

20.9 

20.0 
9.1 


Lbs. 

66.2 
50.1 
3.4 
2.9 
3.8 
0.6 

1.4 
2.8 
7.1 
10.5 
0.8 
1.3 

0.9 
2.5 
1.0 


Lbs. 

4.8 
5.3 
3.9 
5.0 

31.2 
42.4 
37.8 
40.5 
35.2 
39.5 

11.4 

10.1 

5.5 


Lbs. 

13.4 
11.6 


Whole milk 

Skim milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Dried Roughage and 
Straw 

Corn stover (no 
ears) 


3.7 
0.3 
1.0 
0.2 

0.7 


Timothy hay 

Red clover hay .... 

Alfalfa hay 

Wheat straw 

Oat straw 

Fresh grass, Silage, 
Roots 

Corn silage 

Pasture grass 

Mangels 


1.3 
1.8 
0.9 
0.4 
0.8 

0.6 
0.5 
0.2 



This table is used in computing balanced rations as de- 
scribed on pages 227 and 228. 



Table 5. Haecker's Feedlvg Standards for Dairy Cattle 

Maintenance Requirements 







Digestible 




Weight of Cow 








Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


800 


.560 


5.60 


.08 


850 


.595 


5.95 


.08 


900 


.630 


6.30 


.09 


950 


.665 


6.65 


.09 


1000 


.700 


7.00 


.10 


1050 


.735 


7.35 


.10 


1100 


.770 


7.70 


.11 


1150 


.805 


8.05 


.11 


1200 


.840 


8.40 


.12 


1250 


.875 


8.75 


.12 


1300 


.910 


9.10 


.13 


1350 


.945 


9.45 


.13 


1400 


.980 


9.80 


.14 


1450 


1.015 


10.15 


.14 


3500 


1.050 


10.50 


.15 



354 



APPENDIX 



(Table 5 continued) 

Nutrients Required for Production 

(In addition to maintenance requirement) 



For each 1 lb. 




Digestible 




of milk testing : 


Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


3.0% 


.047 


.20 


.017 


3.27o 


.048 


.21 


.018 


3.4% 


.049 


.22 


.018 


3.6%' 


.050 


.22 


.019 


3.876 


.052 


.23 


.020 


4.07o 


.054 


.24 


.021 


4.2 '/o 


.055 


.25 


.021 


4.4%, 


.056 


.26 


.022 


4.67o 


.058 


.27 


.023 


5.07o 


.060 


.28 


.024 


4.8%; 


.059 


.28 


.024 


5.27c 


.062 


.29 


.025 


5A</c 


.063 


.30 


.026 


5.67o 


.064 


.31 


.026 


5.87o 


.066 


.31 


.027 


6.07o 


.067 


.32 


.028 


6.27c 


.069 


.33 


.028 



Directions for using feeding standards are given on page 
225. 



Table 6. Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for 

Farm Animals 





Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 


Dairy cows 

For maintenance of 1.000-lb 
To allowance for mainten 
For each lb. of 3.0 per ct. i 
" " 3.5 '* " 

11 <. X <l ^ Q 14 I. 

<« It 41 "45 " " 

' ' 50 " " 

" " 5.5 " " 
" " " 6.0 " " 


cow 

ance add : 
aiilk 


Lbs. 
0.700 

0.047-0.057 
0.049-0.061 
0.054-0.065 
0.057-0.069 
0.060-0.073 
0.064-0.077 
0.067-0.081 


Lbs. 
7.925 

0.286 
316 


ti 


346 


44 


376 


44 


402 


44 


428 


14 


454 








Per day per 1,000 lbs. live M'ei^ht 


- 


Dry Matter 


Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 


Growing Fattening Steers: 

Weight 600 lbs 

800 " 

1,000 " 

1,200 " 


Lbs. 

23.2 
21.4 
19.7 
17.3 


Lbs. 

2.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 


Lbs. 

15.4 
14.3 
13.5 
12.3 



APPENDIX 



355 









Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight 




Dry Matter 


Difjestible 
Protein 


Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 


Horses : 

Idle 

At, lifht work 


13.0-18.0 
15.0-22.0 
16.0-24.0 
18.0-26.0 

27.0-30.0 
28.0-31.0 
27.0-31.0 

46.2-51.0 
37.0-40.8 
32.4-35.8 
29.0-32.0 
25.5-28.1 
22.4-24.8 


0.8-1.0 
1.1-1.4 
1.4-1.7 
2.0-2.2 

3.1-3.3 

2.5-2.8 
2.3-2.5 

7.8-8.5 
5.5-6.0 
4.4-4.9 
3.5-3.9 
3.0-3.4 
2.6-2.9 


7.0- 9.0 
10.0-13 1 


" mpflinm " 


12.8-15.6 


" heavy " 


15.9-19.5 


Fattening lambs : 

Weight 50- 70 ll-s. 
70- 90 " 
" 90-110 




19.0-22.0 
20.0-23.0 




19.0-23.0 


Fattening pigs : 

Weight 30- 50 11 

50-100 

100-15J 

IC . -2,00 

" 2UJ-J50 

250-300 


)S. . 

t 

4 

( 
( 
i 




41.0-45.4 
32.9-36.4 
28.8-31.9 
25.8-28.5 
22.7-25.0 
20.0-22.0 


Wheeler Standards for poultry : 

For hens in full laying — Per day per 100 lbs. 

Hens of 5 to 8 lbs. weight 

" ■• 3 to 5 " " 


0.65 
1.00 


3.35 
5.54 



From Henry & Morrison, " Feeds and Feeding 
Abridged." 



Table 7 — Laboratory and School Supplies 

The following school supply companies and manufacturers 
have much material pertaining to agriculture for sale. From 
them may be purchased milk testing outfits, specimens of 
grains and weed seeds, charts of animals, score cards, litmus 
paper, chemicals and in fact almost anything needed in the 
school room. Write for their catalog, stating what kind of 
material you desire. 



Central Scientific Co., Chicago, 111. 

W. M. Welch Scientific Co., Chicago, 111. 

Chicago Apparatus Co., Chicago, 111. 

Industrial Educational Co., Indianapolis, Ind. 

The Columbian School Supply Co., Indianapolis, Ind. 

The Kauffman-Lattimer Co., Columbus, Ohio. 



356 APPE:NrDIX 

(Table 7 continued) 
L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., Boston, Mass. 
The Creamery Package Co., Chicago and Philadelphia, Pa. 

(Milk testing supplies only). 
The American Fork and Hoe Co., Cleveland, Ohio, and 
S. L. Allen and Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 

(These two companies handle garden implements). 
Crosby Paper Co., Baltimore, Md., and 
F. W. Rochelle and Son, Chester, 'N-. J. 

(These two companies sell paper pots and bands). 
The Prang Co., Chicago, 111., and New York City. 

(Colored construction paper for agricultural booklets). 
Gaylor Bros., Syracuse, N. Y. 

(Index cards, note book covers, bulletin covers, and 
gummed letters and numbers). 
Modern Mfg. Co., 543 No. Lawrence St., Philadelphia, Pa. 

(Paper bands and pots for seedlings). 
Denoyer-Geppert Co., 460 E. Ohio St., Chicago, 111. 

(Agricultural charts. Send for list.) 

Table 8 — Outline for Testing Milk 

1. Securing an accurate sample: To get an accurate sam- 
pie of the milk, pour it back and forth from one vessel to an- 
other several times, and dissolve the cream that may adhere 
to the sides of the retainer. The test is worthless unless the 
sample is well mixed. 

2. Filling the Pipette : Suck up a little more milk than is 
needed; that is, have the top of the milk column come about 
^ of an inch above the mark on the pipette. Press the 
tongue firmly against the upper opening of the pipette, and 
in this position raise the lower end of the pipette above the 
milk. Place the forefinger of the left hand over the lower 
opening of the pipette and release the tongue. Then press 
the forefinger of the right hand firmly over the top opening 
of the pipette and remove the finger at the lower end. A 
large drop of milk will fall from the pipette. Now replace 
the finger at the lower end, and remove the finger at the top 



APPENDIX 357 

(Testing Milk continued) 
for a moment ; then remove the finger at the lower end, as be- 
fore. Continue this process until the column just reaches 
the mark. 

3. Adding the Milk to the Test Bottle: Have the pipette 
in the right hand with the forefinger pressed against the up- 
per end. Hold the milk test bottle in the left hand at a 
slight incline. Place the lower end of the pipette just inside 
of the top of the neck. This will permit the air in the bottle 
to escape. If any milk is spilled the test must be begun 
again. 

4. Adding the Acid: Precaution. Sulphuric acid is very 
strong and must be handled carefully. If any is spilled or 
gets on the hands or clothing wash it off immediately with 
cold water. Always keep the bottle of sulphuric acid tightly 
corked when not actually in use. Fill the acid measure to 
the mark. Hold the milk test bottle by the neck in the left 
hand and at an incline; slowly add the acid to the milk al- 
lowing it to flow down the lower side of the neck of the test 
bottle so that the air within the bottle may escape. 

5. Mixing the Acid and the Milk: With the test bottle 
still in its inclined position, mix the acid and the milk by 
means of an even rotary motion. The milk will first coagu- 
late; then the curd will disappear as it dissolves; and the 
milk will become hot and dark brown in color. The color of 
the mixture indicates whether or not the proper amount of 
acid has been added. Quite often the acid is too weak and 
this condition will give a reddish brown color. In this case 
more acid must be added until the mixture has a dark choco- 
late brown color. 

6. Whirli7ig the Bottles: First time. Number the bottles 
and place them in the cups of the machine opposite each other 
and whirl them for four minutes, turning the handle at the 
speed indicated on the machine. 

Gradually bring the bottles to a stop, remove them, and add 
hot soft water from a beaker or pipette until the contents 
reach the bottom of the necks of the test bottles. 



358 APPEXDIX 

Second Time: Replace the test bottles and whirl them a 
second time for two minutes. Then add more hot soft water 
to bring all the butter fat up into the graduated portion of 
the necks of the bottles. 

Third Time: Whirl them again for another two minutes 
to free the butter fat of any sediment that may be mixed 
with it. 

7. Beading the Test: To get an accurate test the bottles 
after the whirlings should be ijlaced in a deep water bath so 
that the fat columns are submerged beneath water, the tem- 
perature of which should be between 125 F to 140 F. The 
bottles should be left in the water bath about five minutes. 
Then remove them and read the fat columns from the bot- 
toms to the tops of the curved surfaces on top. 

8. Color of the Fat Columns: The butter fat should have 
a golden yellow color. If it is dark, either the acid was too 
strong or too much acid was used; if the color of the butter 
fat is too light, the acid was either too weak or not enough 
was used, or the machine whirled too slowly. 

. 9. Emptying the Bottles With continuous shaking to dis- 
solve the sediment in the bottom of the test bottle, empty 
their contents into an earthen jar. Then wash the bottles, 
first with hot, soapy water, and again with clean water. 

Duplicate tests of each sample of milk are usually made. 
These serve to check any errors in the work, and to establish 
its accuracy. Test several samples of milk and thus learn 
the process. 



INDEX 



Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 26G. 

Accounts, in garden work, 
344. 

Acids, 21; composition, 21; 
in soils, 21, 22; in roots, 
21. 

Acid soils, 21-23; appear- 
ance of, 23. 

Agricultural instruction, 

growth of, 4. 

Agriculture, why taught, 1. 

Air, for plant growth, 12; 
in soils, 20. 

Albumin, 271. 

Alfalfa, 111; growing the 
crop, 112; harvesting, 113; 
history, 112; rich in nitro- 
gen, 71. 

Alsike clover, 110, 

Ammonia, 65. 

Angus cattle, 267. 

Apples, 196. 

Ash, 215. 

Ashes, 51. 

Asiatic class of poultry, 234. 

Ayrshire cattle, 255. 

Babcock milk test, 273. 
Babcock, Prof., 275. 
Bacteria, 72 ; cultures of, 72 ; 
in soils, 19 ; makes nitrates. 



50 ; need sweet soils, 23 ; 

on legumes, 72 ; relation to 

humus, 20; relation to le- 
gumes, 71. 
Barley, 96, 103; the plant, 

103; types, 96; uses, 103. 
Beef cattle, 264; beef type, 

264. 
Bees, 155; the hive, 157; 

swarming, 156. 
Belgian horses, 284. 
Berkshire swine, 291. 
Birds, 151; their food, 151; 

how to attract them, 153; 

useful ones, 152. 
Blackberry, 199. 
Blight, on potatoes, 119. 
Bordeaux mixture, 204. 
Brown Swiss cattle, 256. 
Buds, 191. 
Budding, 187. 
Bulbs, 320. 
Butter, 276. 
Butter fat, 271; testing for, 

356. 
Buttermilk for swine, 296. 

Cabbage worms, 143. 
Calcium, 52; how plants get 

it, 52. 
Calf raising, 263. 



350 



360 



INDEX 



Calyx, 8. 

Canker worm, 142. 

Capillary water, 27; rise of, 
28. 

Carbohydrates, 218; descrip- 
tion of, 218; in seeds, 128. 

Carbon, 48 ; properties of, 48 ; 
how plants get it, 48. 

Case hi, 271. 

Cattle, 248; beef breeds, 264; 
dairy breeds, 250; dual 
purpose breeds, 251; feed- 
ing standards for, 224; 
grades, 258; judging, 258; 
pure breeds, 257; rations 
for, 22G ; scrubs, 258. 

Cereal grains, 96; compari- 
sons of, 96. 

Cheese, 277. 

Cherries, 198. 

Chester White swine, 292. 

Cheviot sheep, 301. 

Chickens, 232; breeds, 232; 
feeding, 239 ; hatching, 
244. 

Chinch bug, 143. 

Clay soils, 17; characteris- 
tics, 17; water capacity, 
32. 

Clover, 70; Alsike, 110; 
mammoth, 110; medium 
red, 110; and timothy, 
108; nitrogen in, 71. 
Clydesdale horses, 284. 
Club work for boys and 
girls, 333. 



Coach horses, 284. 

Cocoon, 140. 

Codling moth, 141. 

Cold frames, 165. 

Colostrum, 272. 

Colts, 287. 

Commercial fertilizers, 63; 
complete, 64; composition, 
64; mixed, 64; mixing, 65; 
uses, 65; value, 64; why 
used, 65. 

Compound, 47; soluble, 53. 

Companion crops, 162. 

Concentrates, 220. 

Conditions of plant growth, 
12, 39. 

Corn, 79 ; amount grown, 79 ; 
classes, 80; corn belt 
states, 79; cultivation, 90; 
dent, 80; diseases, 91; 
flowers, 82; history, 79; 
flint, 81; harvesting, 90; 
hogging down, 297; list- 
ing, 89 ; market grades, 93 ; 
pests, 91; the plant, 82; 
planting, 89; pop, 82; seed 
selection, 84; seed curing, 
85 ; seed testing, 86 ; sweet, 
81; varieties, 80; uses, 79. 
Corn silage, 91. 
Corolla, 8. 

Cotswold sheep, 306. 
Cotton, 120; the plant, 120; 

growing the crop, 120. 
Cottony maple scale, 144. 
Cover crops, 68. 



INDEX 



361 



Cowpeas, 113. 

Cow testing associations, 
258. 

Cream, 276. 

Crop residues, 63. 

Crop rotations, 75. 

Cultivation, 42; dust mulch, 
43 ; frequency, 43 ; of 
corn, 90; in school gar- 
dens, 336. 

Cultures of bacteria, 72. 

Curing seeds, 10. 

Currants, 199. 

Cutting insects, 141. 



Dairy cattle, 250; feeding, 
262. 

Dairying, 249 ; records, 261. 

Delaine Merino sheep, 300. 

Dent corn, 80. 

Diseases of corn, 91; of pota- 
toes, 119; of poultry, 245; 
of wheat, 101; mildews, 
148; potato scab, 119; po- 
tato blight, 119. 

Disking, 41. 

Dorset Horn sheep, 302. 

Drainage, 34; benefits of, 34; 
methods of, 35 ; surface 
drains, 35 ; tile, 35. 

Dry farming, 44. 

Dry matter in feeds, 215. 

Duroc Jersey swine, 292. 

Dust mulch, 43. 

Dutch Belted cattle, 256. 



Earthworms, 19. 

Education of farmers, % 

Egg laying contests, 235. 

Eggs, care of, 242; produc- 
tion of, 235. 

Elements, 47 ; of plant food, 
47; three most important, 
48 ; ten essential, 47. 

English class of poultry, 235. 

English Shire horses, 283. 

Evaporation, 28 ; from soils, 
28; checking, 30; effects of 
dust mulch, 43 



Earm plans, 75. 

Farmers' friends, 151. 

Eat, 219 ; description of, 219 ; 
in seeds, 130. 

Feeding, animals, 214; bal- 
anced rations, 224, 226; 
calves, 263; horses, 286; 
poultry, 239; sheep, 308; 
swine, 295 ; standards for, 
224. 

Feeding stuffs, 214; compo- 
sition, 214; classes, 220; 
nutrients in, 220 ; laws reg- 
ulating sale of, 218. 

Fertilization of flowers, 8. 

Fertilizers, 52 ; commercial, 
63, 172; laws, 65; contain- 
ing nitrogen, 49; phos- 
phorus, 50; potassium, 51; 
natural, 60. 

Fire blight, 147. 



362 



INDEX 



Fixation of atmospheric ni- 
trogen, 74. 

Flats for seedlings, 176. 

Flint corn, 81. 

Flower garden, 319. 

Flowers, 319; annuals, 165; 
biennials, 166; perennials, 
166; fertilization, 9; fruit 
of, 10; old fashioned ones, 
320; parts of, 8. 

Forage crops, 108; alfalfa, 
111; alsike clover, 110; 
cowpeas, 113; clover leg- 
umes, 70; red top, 109; 
soy beans, 113; timothy, 
10. 

Forestry, 313 ; advantages of, 
314; law perpetuated, 315. 

Formation of soils, 16. 

Free water, 27; drainage of, 
34. 

Frogs, 155. 

Fruit buds, 191; formation 
of, 10. 

Fungi, 147. 

Fungicides, 204 ; Bordeaux 
mixture, 204. 



Galloway cattle, 267. 

Garden, 168 ; crops, 161 ; cul- 
tivation of, 175; fall man- 
agement, 179 ; fertilization, 
172; flowers, 319; plan, 
169; projects, 323; soil, 
168; staking out, 173; 



school gardens, 336; vege- 
tables, 161. 

Germination of seeds, 133. 

Germs, of seeds, 10. 

Goats, 306. 

Good roads, 310; how made, 
310. 

Gooseberries, ^199. 

Grade animals, 257. 

Grafting, 185. 

Grains, 96; cereals, 96; vari- 
eties of, 98. 

Grapes, 199. 

Grass crops, 108. 

Green manuring, 68; forms 
humus, 68. 

Green tissue, use of, 11. 

Guernsey cattle, 254. 



Hampshire sheep, 302. 

Hampshire swine, 292. 

Harrowing, 42. 

Hay crops, 108. 

Hens, breeds of, 232; feed- 
ing, 239; broody, 242; 
pelvic bone test, 243. 

Hereford cattle, 266. 

Hessian fly, 102. 

Hilling crops, 92. 

Holstein - Friesian cattle, 
252. 

Home and school grounds, 
315. 

Home projects, 323. 

Hopkins, Cyril G., 3. 



INDEX 



363 



Horses, 280; breeds, 281 
history, 281 ; Arabian, 282 
coach, 284; draft, 282 
speed, 281; care of, 285 
feeding, 286. 

Hotbed, 163. 

Humus, 16, 20; formation of, 
16; from green manures, 
68; increases water capac- 
ity, 33, 34; rich in nitro- 
gen, 50; value of, 20. 

Hydrogen, 48; properties of, 
48. 

Improving a herd, 3, 258. 

Inoculation, 72. 

Insects, 139 ; description of, 
139; classification of, 141; 
biting, 141, 207; sucking, 
143, 209; codling moth, 
141 ; canker worm, 142 ; 
cabbage worm, 143 ; potato 
beetle, 143 ; scale insects, 
143; chinch bugs, 143; 
plant lice, 143 ; control, 
145 ; life history, 140. 

Insecticides, 207. 

Iron, 52. 

Irrigation, 36; application of 
water, 36; sources of 
water, 36; where preva- 
lent, 36. 

Jersey cattle, 251. 
Judging cattle, 257, 260. 

Kerosene emulsion, 209. 



Lambs, care of, 307. 

Larva, 140. 

Layering, 185. 

Leaf, parts of, 8. 

Legumes, 70; advantages of, 
71 ; characteristics, 70 ; 
forage crops, 108; feeding 
value, 73; inoculation of, 
72; list of, 70; need lime, 
74; nodules and tubercles, 
71; uses of, 73; uses of 
their seeds, 73. 

Leicester sheep, 305. 

Light for plant growth, 11. 

Lime, 22; action with acids, 
21; how used in soils, 23. 

Lime sulphur, 210. 

Liming soils, 22. 

Lincoln sheep, 306. 

Listing corn, 89. 

Litmus, use in testing soils, 
22. 

Loam soils, 17; characteris- 
tics, 17; water capacity of, 
32. 



Magnesium, 52. 

Manure, 60; amounts to ap- 
ply, 61; care of, 62; com- 
position, 60; green, 68; 
low in phosphorus, 61 ; 
plant food added by, 60. 

Manure spreader, 61. 

Marsh soils, 18. 

Mash, for poultry, 240. 



364 



I]N"DEX 



Mediterranean class of poul- 
try, 233. 

Merino sheep, 300. 

Mildews, 148. 

Milk and its products, 270; 
composition of, 270; as a 
food, 270; clean, 248; fat 
in, 271 ; souring of, 272 ; 
for swine, 296; testing for 
butter fat, 356; mineral 
matter, 272. 

Mineral soil particles, origin 
of, 15; agents of decompo- 
sition, 15. 

Nitrate, 49 ; formed by bac- 
teria, 50; nitrification, 74. 

Nitrification, 74. 

Nitrogen, 48; amounts in 
legumes, 71; amounts re- 
moved by crops, 57; from 
humus, 50; how used by 
bacteria, 71; uses of to 
plants, 59; fixation of, 74; 
properties of, 49. 

Nodules, 91. 

Nurse crops, 76. 

Nutrients, in feeds, 220. 

Nutritive ratio, 222; calcu- 
lation of, 222; narrow and 
wide, 223. 

Oats, 96; cultural methods, 
106; market grades, 106 
seed improvement, 106 
types, 105; the plant, 106 
uses, 104. 



Oat smut, 106, 148. 

Organic matter, 16; in ma- 
nure, 61. 

Orchards, 189; management, 
189. 

Osmosis, 54. 

Oxford sheep, 303. 

Oxygen, 48; properties! of, 
48; action of in soils, 20. 

Oyster shell scale, 144. 

Paris green, 198. 

Peach trees, 198. 

Pears, 196. 

Peas, 170. 

Peat soils, 18. 

Percheron horses, 283. 

Perennial flowers, 166. 

Pests, on corn, 91; on pota- 
toes, 119 ; of wheat, 101. 

Petals of flowers, 8. 

Phosphate, 61 ; fertilizers, 
51 ; conversion into phos- 
phorus, 65. 

Phosphoric acid, 65. 

Phosphorus, 48 ; conversion 
into phosphoric acid, 65; 
in manure, 61 ; how a plant 
gets it, 50; properties, 49; 
removed by crops, 57; use 
of, 59. 

Physical condition of soils, 
39 ; as affected by plowing, 
40. 

Pigs, see swine, 289. 

Pig projects, 325. 



INDEX 



365 



Plant diseases, 146; nature 
of, 14C; fungi, 147. 

Plant enemies, 136. 

Plant food, 11; amount add- 
ed by manure, 61 ; amounts 
in soils, 52 ; available, 53 ; 
unavailable, 53 ; elements 
of, 47; evidence of lack of, 
59; manufactured, 11; in 
fertilizers, 64; raw mate- 
rials, 47 ; removed by 
crops, 56 ; uses of to plants. 






Plant growth, 11. 

Plant lice, 143. 

Plants, importance of, 6 ; 

parts of, 6; propagation, 

130. 
Plowing, 40. 
Plums, 198. 

Poland China swine, 291. 
Pollen, 8. 
Pollination, 9. 
Ponies, 285. 
Pop corn, 82. 

Potash from potassium, 65. 
Potassium, 51 ; changed to 

potash, 65; how a plant 

gets it, 50; in manure, 61; 

properties of, 51; removed 

by crops, 57. 
Potatoes, 116; blight, 119, 

149 ; diseases, 119 ; growing 

the crop, 118; pests, 119; 

scab, 119, 148; seed, 117; 

varieties, 117; beetle, 119. 



Poultry, 231; industry, 231; 

classes, 232; egg laying 

contests, 235 ; feeding, 

239; houses, 236, 237; 

records, 4; raising, 244. 
Prizes for garden work, 345. 
Projects, home and school, 

323; kinds, 327; how to 

start, 324; reports, 332; 

story of, 332; list of, 327; 

planning, 328; results of, 

325. 
Propagation of plants, by 

seeds, 130; by buds, 182; 

by grafting, 185. 
Protein, 216 ; composition of, 

216; in seeds, 130. 
Protoplasm, 54. 
Pruning, 192. 
Pure bred cattle, 257. 



Rag doll seed tester, 87. 

Paw plant food, 47. 

Rambouillet sheep, 300. 

Raspberries, 199. 

Ration, 220; balanced, 224; 
balancing, 226; for horses, 
286; cattle, 226; calves, 
263; cost of, 221; poultry, 
239; sheep, 308; swine, 
295. 

Red top, 109. 

Registered cattle, 258. 

Rice, 124. 

Root hairs, 7. 



366 



i:ndex 



Roots, of plants, 7; acids in 
thera, 21 ; growth toward 
water, 31; how they ab- 
sorb water, 54 ; osmosis, 54. 

Rotation of crops, 75 ; bene- 
fits of, 75; kinds, 76; 
planning of, 76 ; good rota- 
tions, 75; reasons for, 75. 

Roughages, 220. 

Rust, of wheat, 101. 

Rye, 96, 103; cultural meth- 
ods, 103; description, 96; 
uses, 103. 



Sandy soils, 17; water ca- 
pacity, 32. 

San Jose scale, 144. 

Sap, movement of, 7. 

Sawdust box seed tester, 86. 

Scab, on potatoes, 119. 

Scalecide, 211. 

School gardens, 336; ac- 
counts, 344; judging, 345; 
for rural schools, 347; 
planning, 338 ; observa- 
tional plots, 347; plant- 
ing, 341; preparation of 
seed bed, 341; prizes for, 
345. 

School and home projects, 
323. 

Score card for cattle, 259. 

Seed bed, 40 ; preparation of, 
40; operations involved in, 
39. 



Seed selection, 131. 

Seeds, 10, 128; classes, 10, 
128 ; curing, 10 ; food in, 
128 ; formation of, 10 ; 
high and low grade, 130; 
improvement of, 132 ; of 
legumes, 73; planting, 
173; propagation of plants, 
130; selection of, 131; 
testing, 86; parts of, 10; 
plate tester, 132. 

Seed corn, 83; selection, 84; 
curing, 85 : testing, 86. 

Seedlings, 176; thinning, 
179. 

Sheep, 297; advantages of 
raising, 297; tyi^es and 
breeds, 298 ; fine wool, 299 ; 
long wool, 299 ; medium 
wool, 301 ; care of, 307 ; 
fattening, 308; rations for, 
308. 

Shorthorn cattle, 265. 

Shropshire sheep, 302. 

Shrubs, 318. 

Silage, 91. 

Silos, 92 ; forms of, 92 ; prin- 
ciple of, 92 ; value of, 92. 

Skim milk for swine, 295. 

Smut, of wheat, 101 ; of corn, 
91 ; of oats, 106, 148. 

Sod, a humus former, 63. 

Soil acidity, 21; indications 
of, 23; disadvantages, 23; 
appearance of, 23 ; how 
corrected, 23. 



INDEX 



367 



Soil surveys, 24; maps of, 
24; value, 21; how ob- 
tained, 24. 

Soil water, 27; amount in 
soils, 32 ; in i^lants, 24 ; 
effects of too little, 30 ; ef- 
fects of too much, 31 ; 
evaporation of, 28 ; how in- 
creased, 33 : movement of, 
27; used by weeds, 136; 
uses, 27. 

Soils, acid, 21, 22, 23 ; air in, 
20 ; plant food in, 52 ; bac- 
teria in, 19; classes, 17; 
cultivation, 42 ; earth- 
worms, 19 ; elements of 
plant food, 47 ; fertilizers, 
60; formation, 16; how 
they become unfertile, 56 ; 
humus in, 20 ; in ' good 
physical condition, 39 
light and heavy, 18 
liming, 22 ; origin, 15 
preparation of seed bed 
40, 173; sour, 21, 22 
structure, 39 ; subsoil, 14 
testing, 22; uses of, wet, 
32; water capacity, 32. 

Sour soils, — See soil acid- 
ity, 21, 22, 23. 

Southdown sheep, 301. 

Soybeans, 113. 

Spraying, 203 ; kerosene 
emulsion solutions, 203 ; 
Paris green, 208. 

Starch, 6, 11. 



Stems, 7. 

Strawl)erries, 200. 

Subsoil, 14. 

Sucking insects, 209. 

"Sugar cane, 125. 

Sugar beets, 126. 

Suffolk sheep, 304. 

Sulphur, 52. 

Surface drains, 35. 

Swine, 289; advantages of, 
289; types, 290; lard, 290; 
bacon, 293; breeds of, 291, 
293; care and manage- 
ment, 294; feeding, 295. 

Tamworth swine, 293. 

Testing milk for butter fat, 
356. 

Testing seed corn, 86. 

Testing seeds, 132; plate 
testers, 132. 

Testing soils, 22. 

Tile drains, 35. 

Tillage, 39. 

Tilth of soils, 39. 

Timothy, 108. 

Toads, 155. 

Tobacco, 121; cultural meth- 
ods, 122; curing, 123; 
harvesting, 123. 

Transplanting, 194. 

Trees and shrubs, 318. 

Tubercles, 71. 

Vegetables, 161; classes, 161; 
companion crops, 162; cold 
frame for, 165; hotbed 



368 



IISTDEX 



for, 164 ; seed bed for, 165 ; 
succession crops, 170. 
Vines, 318. 



Water, amount in soils, 32; 
amount used by plants, 30; 
as an agent in soil forma- 
tion, 15 ; composition of, 
27; in feeding stuffs, 215; 
upward movement, 29. 

Weeds, 136; annuals, 137; 
biennials, 138; classes of, 



136; definition, 136; per- 
ennials, 138. 

Wheat, 96; kinds, 99; de- 
scription, 99 ; diseases, 
101 ; growing the crop, 99 ; 
harvesting, 100 ; pests, 
101; production of, 96; 
rust, 101, 148; seed, 100; 
the plant, 99 ; uses, 98. 

Wind, as an agent in soil 
formation, 15. 

Wounds, of trees, 194 j 
dressing, 194. 



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